tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-39923704847349534232024-03-13T04:19:06.111-07:00TuberculosisMolecular Biologyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00814461328423557334noreply@blogger.comBlogger1125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3992370484734953423.post-62769371603066447562010-12-15T04:13:00.003-08:002010-12-15T04:13:52.441-08:00Tuberculosis<h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading">Tuberculosis</h1><br />
<table cellspacing="5" class="infobox" style="font-size: 88%; line-height: 1.5em; text-align: left; width: 22em;"><tbody>
<tr> <th class="" colspan="2" style="background-color: lightgrey; font-size: 125%; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;">Tuberculosis</th> </tr>
<tr class=""> <td class="" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><i>Classification and external resources</i></td> </tr>
<tr class=""> <td class="" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuberculosis-x-ray-1.jpg"><img alt="" height="178" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Tuberculosis-x-ray-1.jpg/230px-Tuberculosis-x-ray-1.jpg" width="230" /></a><br />
<span>Chest <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> of a patient with far-advanced tuberculosis</span></td> </tr>
<tr class=""> <th scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD" title="ICD">ICD</a>-<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ICD-10_codes" title="List of ICD-10 codes">10</a></th> <td class=""><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD-10_Chapter_A" title="ICD-10 Chapter A">A</a><a class="external text" href="http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?ga15.htm+a15" rel="nofollow">15.</a>–<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD-10_Chapter_A" title="ICD-10 Chapter A">A</a><a class="external text" href="http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd10online/?ga15.htm+a19" rel="nofollow">19.</a></td> </tr>
<tr class=""> <th scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICD" title="ICD">ICD</a>-<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9</a></th> <td class=""><a class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=010" rel="nofollow">010</a>–<a class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=018" rel="nofollow">018</a></td> </tr>
<tr class=""> <th scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OMIM" title="OMIM">OMIM</a></th> <td class=""><a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/607948" rel="nofollow">607948</a></td> </tr>
<tr class=""> <th scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a></th> <td class=""><a class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb8515.htm" rel="nofollow">8515</a></td> </tr>
<tr class=""> <th scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a></th> <td class=""><a class="external text" href="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000077.htm" rel="nofollow">000077</a> <i><a class="external text" href="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000624.htm" rel="nofollow">000624</a></i></td> </tr>
<tr class=""> <th scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a></th> <td class=""><a class="external text" href="http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic2324.htm" rel="nofollow">med/2324</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic618.htm#" rel="nofollow">emerg/618</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.emedicine.com/radio/topic411.htm#" rel="nofollow">radio/411</a></td> </tr>
<tr class=""> <th scope="row" style="text-align: left;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th> <td class=""><a class="external text" href="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2010/MB_cgi?field=uid&term=D014376" rel="nofollow">D014376</a></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><b>Tuberculosis</b> or <b>TB</b> (short for <i>tubercles <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_%28shape%29" title="Bacillus (shape)">bacillus</a></i>) is a common and often deadly <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_disease" title="Infectious disease">infectious disease</a> caused by various strains of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium" title="Mycobacterium">mycobacteria</a>, usually <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a></i> in humans.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> Tuberculosis usually attacks the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a> but can also affect other parts of the body. It is spread through the air when people who have the disease cough, sneeze, or spit.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AP_1-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-AP-1"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> Most infections in humans result in an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic" title="Asymptomatic">asymptomatic</a>, latent infection, and about one in ten latent infections eventually progresses to active disease, which, if left untreated, kills more than 50% of its victims.<br />
The classic symptoms are a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cough" title="Cough">chronic cough</a> with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoptysis" title="Hemoptysis">blood-tinged</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputum" title="Sputum">sputum</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_sweats" title="Night sweats">night sweats</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight_loss" title="Weight loss">weight loss</a> (the last giving rise to the formerly prevalent colloquial term "consumption"). Infection of other organs causes a wide range of symptoms. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnosis</a> relies on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_radiology" title="Tuberculosis radiology">radiology</a> (commonly <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chest_X-ray" title="Chest X-ray">chest X-rays</a>), a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantoux_test" title="Mantoux test">tuberculin skin test</a>, blood tests, as well as microscopic examination and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">microbiological culture</a> of bodily fluids. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_treatment" title="Tuberculosis treatment">Treatment</a> is difficult and requires long courses of multiple antibiotics. Contacts are also screened and treated if necessary. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" title="Antibiotic resistance">Antibiotic resistance</a> is a growing problem in (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensively_drug-resistant_tuberculosis" title="Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis">extensively</a>) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-drug-resistant_tuberculosis" title="Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis">multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis</a>. Prevention relies on screening programs and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a>, usually with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_Calmette-Gu%C3%A9rin" title="Bacillus Calmette-Guérin">Bacillus Calmette-Guérin</a> vaccine.<br />
One third of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population" title="World population">world's population</a> is thought to be infected with <i>M. tuberculosis</i>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> and new infections occur at a rate of about one per second.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO2004data_4-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-WHO2004data-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> The proportion of people who become sick with tuberculosis each year is stable or falling worldwide but, because of population growth, the absolute number of new cases is still increasing.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO2004data_4-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-WHO2004data-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> In 2007 there were an estimated 13.7 million chronic active cases, 9.3 million new cases, and 1.8 million deaths, mostly in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_nation" title="Developing nation">developing countries</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO2009-Epidemiology_5-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-WHO2009-Epidemiology-5"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> In addition, more people in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed world</a> are contracting tuberculosis because their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune systems</a> are compromised by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drug" title="Immunosuppressive drug">immunosuppressive drugs</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a>, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>. The distribution of tuberculosis is not uniform across the globe; about 80% of the population in many Asian and African countries test positive in tuberculin tests, while only 5-10% of the US population test positive.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<table class="toc" id="toc"><tbody>
<tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2><span class="toctoggle">[<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#" id="togglelink">hide</a>]</span></div><ul><li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Classification"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Classification</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Signs_and_symptoms"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Signs and symptoms</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Causes"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Causes</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Risk_factors"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Risk factors</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Mechanism"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Mechanism</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Transmission"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Transmission</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Pathogenesis"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Pathogenesis</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Diagnosis"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Diagnosis</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Prevention"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Prevention</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Vaccines"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Vaccines</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Screening"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Screening</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Treatment"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Treatment</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-13"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Recurrence"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Recurrence</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Prognosis"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Prognosis</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Epidemiology"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Epidemiology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#History"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Other_names"><span class="tocnumber">12.1</span> <span class="toctext">Other names</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Folklore"><span class="tocnumber">12.2</span> <span class="toctext">Folklore</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Study_and_treatment"><span class="tocnumber">12.3</span> <span class="toctext">Study and treatment</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Evolution"><span class="tocnumber">12.4</span> <span class="toctext">Evolution</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Society_and_culture"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Society and culture</span></a> <ul><li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Public_health"><span class="tocnumber">13.1</span> <span class="toctext">Public health</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-23"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Notable_victims"><span class="tocnumber">13.2</span> <span class="toctext">Notable victims</span></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Research"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">Research</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#In_other_animals"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">In other animals</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#References"><span class="tocnumber">16</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">17</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">18</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Classification">Classification</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_classification" title="Tuberculosis classification">Tuberculosis classification</a></div>The current clinical classification system for tuberculosis (TB) is based on the pathogenesis of the disease.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from June 2009">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup><br />
<table class="wikitable" style="font-size: 90%; text-align: left;"><caption>Classification System for TB</caption> <tbody>
<tr> <th>Class</th> <th>Type</th> <th>Description</th> </tr>
<tr> <td>0</td> <td>No TB exposure<br />
Not infected</td> <td>No history of exposure<br />
Negative reaction to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculin" title="Tuberculin">tuberculin</a> skin test</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>1</td> <td>TB exposure<br />
No evidence of infection</td> <td>History of exposure<br />
Negative reaction to tuberculin skin test<br />
<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghon_complex" title="Ghon complex">Ghon complex</a></td> </tr>
<tr> <td>2</td> <td>TB infection<br />
No disease</td> <td>Positive reaction to tuberculin skin test<br />
Negative bacteriologic studies (if done)<br />
Fibrocaseous cavitary lesion (usually in upper lobe of lungs)</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>3</td> <td>TB, clinically active</td> <td><i>M. tuberculosis</i> cultured (if done)<br />
Clinical, bacteriologic, or radiographic evidence of current disease</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>4</td> <td>TB<br />
Not clinically active</td> <td>History of episode(s) of TB<br />
<b>or</b><br />
Abnormal but stable radiographic findings<br />
Positive reaction to the tuberculin skin test<br />
Negative bacteriologic studies (if done)<br />
<b>and</b><br />
No clinical or radiographic evidence of current disease</td> </tr>
<tr> <td>5</td> <td>TB suspect</td> <td>Diagnosis pending<br />
TB disease should be ruled in or out within 3 months</td> </tr>
</tbody></table><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</span></h2><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuberculosis_symptoms.svg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="195" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Tuberculosis_symptoms.svg/220px-Tuberculosis_symptoms.svg.png" width="220" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuberculosis_symptoms.svg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Main symptoms of variants and stages of tuberculosis,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> with many symptoms overlapping with other variants, while others are more (but not entirely) specific for certain variants. Multiple variants may be present simultaneously.</div></div></div><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mycobacterium_tuberculosis.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="212" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis.jpg" width="220" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mycobacterium_tuberculosis.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Scanning electron micrograph of <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a></i></div></div></div><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mycobacterium_phylogenetic_tree.png"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="153" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Mycobacterium_phylogenetic_tree.png/220px-Mycobacterium_phylogenetic_tree.png" width="220" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mycobacterium_phylogenetic_tree.png" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogenetic tree</a> of the genus <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium" title="Mycobacterium">Mycobacterium</a></i>.</div></div></div>When the disease becomes active, 75% of the cases are <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary" title="Pulmonary">pulmonary</a> TB, that is, TB in the lungs. Symptoms include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chest_pain" title="Chest pain">chest pain</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoptysis" title="Hemoptysis">coughing up blood</a>, and a productive, prolonged cough for more than three weeks. Systemic symptoms include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigor_%28medicine%29" title="Rigor (medicine)">chills</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_sweats" title="Night sweats">night sweats</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appetite_loss" title="Appetite loss">appetite loss</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weight_loss" title="Weight loss">weight loss</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallor" title="Pallor">pallor</a>, and often a tendency to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_%28medical%29" title="Fatigue (medical)">fatigue</a> very easily.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO2004data_4-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-WHO2004data-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Tuberculosis also has a specfic odour attached to it, this has led to trained animals being used vet samples as a method of early detection<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
In the other 25% of active cases, the infection moves from the lungs, causing other kinds of TB, collectively denoted extrapulmonary tuberculosis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> This occurs more commonly in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunosuppressed" title="Immunosuppressed">immunosuppressed</a> persons and young children. Extrapulmonary infection sites include the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleura" title="Pleura">pleura</a> in tuberculosis pleurisy, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a> in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrofula" title="Scrofula">scrofula</a> of the neck, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">genitourinary system</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urogenital_tuberculosis" title="Urogenital tuberculosis">urogenital tuberculosis</a>, and bones and joints in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pott%27s_disease" title="Pott's disease">Pott's disease</a> of the spine. An especially serious form is disseminated TB, more commonly known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miliary_tuberculosis" title="Miliary tuberculosis">miliary tuberculosis</a>. Extrapulmonary TB may co-exist with pulmonary TB as well.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CDCcourse_10-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-CDCcourse-10"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Causes">Causes</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a></div>The primary cause of TB, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a></i>, is a small <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_organism" title="Aerobic organism">aerobic</a> non-motile <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus" title="Bacillus">bacillus</a>. High <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipid</a> content of this pathogen accounts for many of its unique clinical characteristics.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup> It <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">divides</a> every 16 to 20 hours, an extremely slow rate compared with other bacteria, which usually divide in less than an hour.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Cox_2004_12-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Cox_2004-12"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> (For example, one of the fastest-growing bacteria is a strain of <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._coli" title="E. coli">E. coli</a></i> that can divide roughly every 20 minutes.) Since MTB has a cell wall but lacks a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">phospholipid</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure" title="Bacterial cell structure">outer membrane</a>, it is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_classification" title="Tuberculosis classification">classified</a> as a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram-positive" title="Gram-positive">Gram-positive</a> bacterium. However, if a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram_stain" title="Gram stain">Gram stain</a> is performed, MTB either stains very weakly Gram-positive or does not retain dye due to the high <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipid</a> & <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycolic_acid" title="Mycolic acid">mycolic acid</a> content of its cell wall.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Madison_2001_13-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Madison_2001-13"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> MTB can withstand weak <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">disinfectants</a> and survive in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endospore" title="Endospore">dry state</a> for weeks. In nature, the bacterium can grow only within the cells of a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_%28biology%29" title="Host (biology)">host</a> organism, but <i>M. tuberculosis</i> can be cultured <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Parish_1999_14-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Parish_1999-14"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histology" title="Histology">histological</a> stains on expectorate samples from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegm" title="Phlegm">phlegm</a> (also called sputum), scientists can identify MTB under a regular microscope. Since MTB retains certain stains after being treated with acidic solution, it is classified as an <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid-fast_bacillus" title="Acid-fast bacillus">acid-fast bacillus</a> (AFB).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Madison_2001_13-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Madison_2001-13"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> The most common acid-fast staining technique, the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziehl-Neelsen_stain" title="Ziehl-Neelsen stain">Ziehl-Neelsen stain</a>, dyes AFBs a bright red that stands out clearly against a blue background. Other ways to visualize AFBs include an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auramine-rhodamine_stain" title="Auramine-rhodamine stain">auramine-rhodamine stain</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence_microscope" title="Fluorescence microscope">fluorescent microscopy</a>.<br />
The <i>M. tuberculosis</i> complex includes four other TB-causing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium" title="Mycobacterium">mycobacteria</a>: <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_bovis" title="Mycobacterium bovis">M. bovis</a></i>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_africanum" title="Mycobacterium africanum">M. africanum</a></i>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_canetti" title="Mycobacterium canetti">M. canetti</a></i> and <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_microti" title="Mycobacterium microti">M. microti</a></i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_africanum" title="Mycobacterium africanum">M. africanum</a></i> is not widespread, but in parts of Africa it is a significant cause of tuberculosis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_bovis" title="Mycobacterium bovis">M. bovis</a></i> was once a common cause of tuberculosis, but the introduction of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasteurisation" title="Pasteurisation">pasteurized milk</a> has largely eliminated this as a public health problem in developed countries.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup> <i>M. canetti</i> is rare and seems to be limited to Africa, although a few cases have been seen in African emigrants.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup> <i>M. microti</i> is mostly seen in immunodeficient people, although it is possible that the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">prevalence</a> of this pathogen has been underestimated.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Niemann_2000_20-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Niemann_2000-20"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Other known pathogenic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium" title="Mycobacterium">mycobacteria</a> include <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_leprae" title="Mycobacterium leprae">Mycobacterium leprae</a></i>, <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_avium_complex" title="Mycobacterium avium complex">Mycobacterium avium</a></i> and <i>M. kansasii</i>. The last two are part of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nontuberculous_mycobacteria" title="Nontuberculous mycobacteria">nontuberculous mycobacteria</a> (NTM) group. Nontuberculous mycobacteria cause neither TB nor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a>, but they <i>do</i> cause pulmonary diseases resembling TB.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ALA_1997_21-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-ALA_1997-21"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Risk factors">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Risk_factors">Risk factors</span></h3>Persons with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicosis" title="Silicosis">silicosis</a> have an approximately <i>30-fold</i> greater risk for developing TB.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-22"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> Silica particles irritate the respiratory system, causing immunogenic responses such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a>, which, as a consequence, results in high lymphatic vessel deposits.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> It is this interference and blockage of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophage</a> function that increases the risk of tuberculosis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> Persons with chronic renal failure and also on hemodialysis have an increased risk: 10—25 times greater than the general population. Persons with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes mellitus</a> have a risk for developing active TB that is two to four times greater than persons without diabetes mellitus, and this risk is likely greater in persons with insulin-dependent or poorly controlled diabetes. Other clinical conditions that have been associated with active TB include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrectomy" title="Gastrectomy">gastrectomy</a> with attendant weight loss and malabsorption, jejunoileal bypass, renal and cardiac transplantation, carcinoma of the head or neck, and other neoplasms (e.g., lung cancer, lymphoma, and leukemia).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Given that silicosis greatly increases the risk of tuberculosis, more research about the effect of various indoor or outdoor air pollutants on the disease would be necessary. Some possible indoor source of silica includes <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">paint</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a>. Crystalline silica is found in concrete, masonry, sandstone, rock, paint, and other abrasives. The cutting, breaking, crushing, drilling, grinding, or abrasive blasting of these materials may produce fine silica dust. It can also be in soil, mortar, plaster, and shingles. When you wear dusty clothing at home or in your car, you may be carrying silica dust that your family will breathe.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-26"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Low body weight is associated with risk of tuberculosis as well. A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_mass_index" title="Body mass index">body mass index</a> (BMI) below 18.5 increases the risk by 2—3 times. On the other hand, an increase in body weight lowers the risk.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-27"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-28"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup> Patients with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus" title="Diabetes mellitus">diabetes mellitus</a> are at increased risk of contracting tuberculosis,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-29"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup> and they have a poorer response to treatment, possibly due to poorer drug absorption<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-30"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Other conditions that increase risk include <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IV_drug_users" title="IV drug users">IV drug abuse</a>; recent TB infection or a history of inadequately treated TB; chest X-ray suggestive of previous TB, showing fibrotic lesions and nodules; prolonged <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">corticosteroid</a> therapy and other immunosuppressive therapy; Immunocompromised patients (30-40% of AIDS patients in the world also have TB) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematology" title="Hematology">hematologic</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reticuloendothelial_system" title="Reticuloendothelial system">reticuloendothelial</a> diseases, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin%27s_lymphoma" title="Hodgkin's lymphoma">Hodgkin's disease;</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End-stage_kidney_disease" title="End-stage kidney disease">end-stage kidney disease</a>; intestinal bypass; chronic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malabsorption" title="Malabsorption">malabsorption</a> syndromes; vitamin D deficiency;<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-31"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup> and low body weight.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CDCcourse_10-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-CDCcourse-10"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_study" title="Twin study">Twin studies</a> in the 1940s showed that susceptibility to TB was heritable. If one of a pair of twins got TB, then the other was more likely to get TB if he was identical than if he was not.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-32"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-32"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup> These findings were more recently confirmed by a series of studies in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-33"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-33"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-34"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-34"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-35"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup> Specific gene polymorphisms in <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IL12B" title="IL12B">IL12B</a></i> have been linked to tuberculosis susceptibility.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-36"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Some drugs, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">rheumatoid arthritis</a> drugs that work by blocking <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor-alpha" title="Tumor necrosis factor-alpha">tumor necrosis factor-alpha</a> (an inflammation-causing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokine</a>), raise the risk of activating a latent infection due to the importance of this cytokine in the immune defense against TB.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Mutlu_2006_37-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Mutlu_2006-37"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mechanism">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Mechanism">Mechanism</span></h2><h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Transmission">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Transmission">Transmission</span></h3>When people suffering from active pulmonary TB cough, sneeze, speak, or spit, they expel infectious <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulate" title="Particulate">aerosol</a> droplets 0.5 to 5 <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9Cm" title="Μm">µm</a> in diameter. A single sneeze can release up to 40,000 droplets.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Cole_1998_38-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Cole_1998-38"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup> Each one of these droplets may transmit the disease, since the infectious dose of tuberculosis is very low and inhaling less than ten bacteria may cause an infection.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-39"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-39"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-40"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-40"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
People with prolonged, frequent, or intense contact are at particularly high risk of becoming infected, with an estimated 22% infection rate. A person with active but untreated tuberculosis can infect 10–15 other people per year.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO2004data_4-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-WHO2004data-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> Others at risk include people in areas where TB is common, people who inject drugs using unsanitary needles, residents and employees of high-risk congregate settings, medically under-served and low-income populations, high-risk racial or ethnic minority populations, children exposed to adults in high-risk categories, patients <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunocompromised" title="Immunocompromised">immunocompromised</a> by conditions such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>, people who take immunosuppressant drugs, and health care workers serving these high-risk clients.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Griffith_1996_41-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Griffith_1996-41"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Transmission can only occur from people with active — not latent — TB.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> The probability of transmission from one person to another depends upon the number of infectious droplets expelled by a carrier, the effectiveness of ventilation, the duration of exposure, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a> of the <i>M. tuberculosis</i> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strain_%28biology%29" title="Strain (biology)">strain</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CDCcourse_10-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-CDCcourse-10"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> The chain of transmission can, therefore, be broken by isolating patients with active disease and starting effective anti-tuberculous therapy. After two weeks of such treatment, people with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" title="Antibiotic resistance">non-resistant</a> active TB generally cease to be contagious. If someone does become infected, then it will take at least 21 days, or three to four weeks, before the newly infected person can transmit the disease to others.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-42"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup> TB can also be transmitted by eating meat infected with TB. <i>Mycobacterium bovis</i> causes TB in cattle. (See details below.)<br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pathogenesis">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Pathogenesis">Pathogenesis</span></h3>About 90% of those infected with <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i> have <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptomatic" title="Asymptomatic">asymptomatic</a>, latent TB infection (sometimes called LTBI), with only a 10% lifetime chance that a latent infection will progress to TB disease.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> However, if untreated, the death rate for these active TB cases is more than 50%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-TDRreport_43-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-TDRreport-43"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
TB infection begins when the mycobacteria reach the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus" title="Pulmonary alveolus">pulmonary alveoli</a>, where they invade and replicate within the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosomes" title="Endosomes">endosomes</a> of alveolar <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophages" title="Macrophages">macrophages</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Houben_44-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Houben-44"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup> The primary site of infection in the lungs is called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghon_focus" title="Ghon focus">Ghon focus</a>, and is generally located in either the upper part of the lower lobe, or the lower part of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">upper lobe</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> Bacteria are picked up by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendritic_cell" title="Dendritic cell">dendritic cells</a>, which do not allow replication, although these cells can transport the bacilli to local (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediastinal" title="Mediastinal">mediastinal</a>) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">lymph nodes</a>. Further spread is through the bloodstream to other tissues and organs where secondary TB lesions can develop in other parts of the lung (particularly the apex of the upper lobes), peripheral lymph nodes, kidneys, brain, and bone.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Herrmann_2005_45-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Herrmann_2005-45"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></a></sup> All parts of the body can be affected by the disease, though it rarely affects the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">skeletal muscles</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-46"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-46"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Tuberculosis is classified as one of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granuloma" title="Granuloma">granulomatous</a> inflammatory conditions. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">Macrophages</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T lymphocytes</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B lymphocytes</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibroblast" title="Fibroblast">fibroblasts</a> are among the cells that aggregate to form a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granuloma" title="Granuloma">granuloma</a>, with <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphocytes" title="Lymphocytes">lymphocytes</a> surrounding the infected macrophages. The granuloma functions not only to prevent dissemination of the mycobacteria, but also provides a local environment for communication of cells of the immune system. Within the granuloma, T lymphocytes secrete <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytokines" title="Cytokines">cytokines</a> such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon_gamma" title="Interferon gamma">interferon gamma</a>, which activates macrophages to destroy the bacteria with which they are infected.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kaufmann_2002_47-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Kaufmann_2002-47"><span>[</span>48<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytotoxic_T_cell" title="Cytotoxic T cell">Cytotoxic T cells</a> can also directly kill infected cells, by secreting <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perforin" title="Perforin">perforin</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granulysin" title="Granulysin">granulysin</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Houben_44-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Houben-44"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Importantly, bacteria are not always eliminated within the granuloma, but can become dormant, resulting in a latent infection.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> Another feature of the granulomas of human tuberculosis is the development of abnormal cell death, also called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a>, in the center of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubercle_%28anatomy%29" title="Tubercle (anatomy)">tubercles</a>. To the naked eye this has the texture of soft white cheese and was termed <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caseous" title="Caseous">caseous</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Grosset_48-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Grosset-48"><span>[</span>49<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
If TB bacteria gain entry to the bloodstream from an area of damaged tissue they spread through the body and set up many foci of infection, all appearing as tiny white tubercles in the tissues. This severe form of TB disease is most common in infants and the elderly and is called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miliary_tuberculosis" title="Miliary tuberculosis">miliary tuberculosis</a>. Patients with this disseminated TB have a fatality rate near 100% if untreated. However, If treated early, the fatality rate is reduced to near 10%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Kim_2003_49-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Kim_2003-49"><span>[</span>50<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
In many patients the infection waxes and wanes. Tissue destruction and necrosis are balanced by healing and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrosis" title="Fibrosis">fibrosis</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Grosset_48-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Grosset-48"><span>[</span>49<span>]</span></a></sup> Affected tissue is replaced by scarring and cavities filled with cheese-like white necrotic material. During active disease, some of these cavities are joined to the air passages <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronchi" title="Bronchi">bronchi</a> and this material can be coughed up. It contains living bacteria and can therefore pass on infection. Treatment with appropriate <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a> kills bacteria and allows healing to take place. Upon cure, affected areas are eventually replaced by scar tissue.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Grosset_48-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Grosset-48"><span>[</span>49<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
If untreated, infection with <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i> can become <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobar_pneumonia" title="Lobar pneumonia">lobar pneumonia</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sambandamurth_2002_50-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Sambandamurth_2002-50"><span>[</span>51<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Diagnosis">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</span></h2><div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">For more details on this topic, see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_diagnosis" title="Tuberculosis diagnosis">Tuberculosis diagnosis</a>.</div><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TB_in_sputum.png"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="220" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/TB_in_sputum.png/220px-TB_in_sputum.png" width="220" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TB_in_sputum.png" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a></i> (stained red) in sputum</div></div></div>Tuberculosis is diagnosed definitively by identifying the causative organism (<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a></i>) in a clinical sample (for example, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputum" title="Sputum">sputum</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pus" title="Pus">pus</a>). When this is not possible, a probable - although sometimes inconclusive<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-AP_1-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-AP-1"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> - diagnosis may be made using imaging (X-rays or scans) and/or a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantoux_test" title="Mantoux test">tuberculin skin test (Mantoux test)</a>.<br />
The main problem with tuberculosis diagnosis is the difficulty in culturing this slow-growing organism in the laboratory (it may take 4 to 12 weeks for blood or sputum culture). A complete medical evaluation for TB must include a medical history, a physical examination, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_radiology" title="Tuberculosis radiology">chest X-ray</a>, microbiological smears, and cultures. It may also include a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantoux_test" title="Mantoux test">tuberculin skin test</a>, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serology" title="Serology">serological</a> test. The interpretation of the tuberculin skin test depends upon the person's risk factors for infection and progression to TB disease, such as exposure to other cases of TB or immunosuppression.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CDCcourse_10-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-CDCcourse-10"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Currently, latent infection is diagnosed in a non-immunized person by a tuberculin skin test, which yields a delayed hypersensitivity type response to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantoux_test" title="Mantoux test">an extract</a> made from <i>M. tuberculosis</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> Those immunized for TB or with past-cleared infection will respond with delayed hypersensitivity parallel to those currently in a state of infection, so the test must be used with caution, particularly with regard to persons from countries where TB immunization is common.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Rothel_2005_51-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Rothel_2005-51"><span>[</span>52<span>]</span></a></sup> Tuberculin tests have the disadvantage of producing false negatives, especially when the patient is <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-morbid" title="Co-morbid">co-morbid</a> with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcoidosis" title="Sarcoidosis">sarcoidosis</a>, Hodgkins lymphoma, malnutrition, or most notably active tuberculosis disease.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-12"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> The newer interferon release assays (IGRAs) overcome many of these problems. IGRAs are <i>in vitro</i> blood tests that are more specific than the skin test. IGRAs detect the release of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon_gamma" title="Interferon gamma">interferon gamma</a> in response to mycobacterial proteins such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESAT-6" title="ESAT-6">ESAT-6</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Nahid_2006_52-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Nahid_2006-52"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></a></sup> These are not affected by immunization or <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_mycobacteria" title="Environmental mycobacteria">environmental mycobacteria</a>, so generate fewer <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_positive" title="False positive">false positive</a> results.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-53"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-53"><span>[</span>54<span>]</span></a></sup> There is also evidence that the T-SPOT.<i>TB</i> IGRA is more sensitive than the skin test.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-54"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-54"><span>[</span>55<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
New TB tests have been developed that are fast and accurate. These include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> assays for the detection of bacterial DNA. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-pmid11831744_55-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-pmid11831744-55"><span>[</span>56<span>]</span></a></sup> One such molecular diagnostics text gives results in 100 minutes and is being currently offered to 116 low and middle-income countries at a discount with support from WHO and the Bill and Melinda Gates foundation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-56"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Prevention">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Prevention">Prevention</span></h2><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 302px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mapa_tuberculose.png"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="139" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Mapa_tuberculose.png/300px-Mapa_tuberculose.png" width="300" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mapa_tuberculose.png" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Map showing the 22 high-burden countries (HBC) that according to WHO account for 80% of all new TB cases arising each year. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Plan_to_Stop_Tuberculosis" title="Global Plan to Stop Tuberculosis">Global Plan</a> is especially aimed at these countries.</div></div></div>TB prevention and control takes two parallel approaches. In the first, people with TB and their contacts are identified and then treated. Identification of infections often involves testing high-risk groups for TB. In the second approach, children are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccinated</a> to protect them from TB. No <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccine</a> is available that provides reliable protection for adults. However, in tropical areas where the levels of other species of mycobacteria are high, exposure to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nontuberculous_mycobacteria" title="Nontuberculous mycobacteria">nontuberculous mycobacteria</a> gives some protection against TB.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Fine_2001_57-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Fine_2001-57"><span>[</span>58<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) declared TB a global health emergency in 1993, and the Stop TB Partnership developed a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Plan_to_Stop_Tuberculosis" title="Global Plan to Stop Tuberculosis">Global Plan to Stop Tuberculosis</a> that aims to save 14 million lives between 2006 and 2015.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-58"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-58"><span>[</span>59<span>]</span></a></sup> Since humans are the only host of <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i>, eradication would be possible. This goal would be helped greatly by an effective vaccine.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-59"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-59"><span>[</span>60<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Vaccines">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Vaccines">Vaccines</span></h3>Many countries use <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_Calmette-Gu%C3%A9rin" title="Bacillus Calmette-Guérin">Bacillus Calmette-Guérin</a> (BCG) vaccine as part of their TB control programmes, especially for infants. According to the WHO, this is the most often used vaccine worldwide, with 85% of infants in 172 countries immunized in 1993.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-BCG-use_60-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-BCG-use-60"><span>[</span>61<span>]</span></a></sup> This was the first vaccine for TB and developed at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasteur_Institute" title="Pasteur Institute">Pasteur Institute</a> in France between 1905 and 1921.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Bonah_61-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Bonah-61"><span>[</span>62<span>]</span></a></sup> However, mass vaccination with BCG did not start until after <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Comstock_62-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Comstock-62"><span>[</span>63<span>]</span></a></sup> The protective efficacy of BCG for preventing serious forms of TB (e.g. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>) in children is greater than 80%; its protective efficacy for preventing pulmonary TB in adolescents and adults is variable, ranging from 0 to 80%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Bannon_1999_63-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Bannon_1999-63"><span>[</span>64<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
In South Africa, the country with the highest prevalence of TB, BCG is given to all children under age three.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-64"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-64"><span>[</span>65<span>]</span></a></sup> However, BCG is less effective in areas where mycobacteria are less <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">prevalent</a>; therefore BCG is not given to the entire population in these countries. In the USA, for example, BCG vaccine is not recommended except for people who meet specific criteria:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CDCcourse_10-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-CDCcourse-10"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<ul><li>Infants or children with negative skin test results who are continually exposed to untreated or ineffectively treated patients or will be continually exposed to <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidrug-resistance" title="Multidrug-resistance">multidrug-resistant</a> TB.</li>
<li>Healthcare workers considered on an individual basis in settings in which a high percentage of MDR-TB patients has been found, transmission of MDR-TB is likely, and TB control precautions have been implemented and were not successful.</li>
</ul>BCG provides some protection against severe forms of pediatric TB, but has been shown to be unreliable against adult pulmonary TB, which accounts for most of the disease burden worldwide. Currently, there are more cases of TB on the planet than at any other time in history and most agree there is an urgent need for a newer, more effective vaccine that would prevent all forms of TB—including drug resistant strains—in all age groups and among people with HIV.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-65"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-65"><span>[</span>66<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Several new vaccines to prevent TB infection are being developed. The first <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">recombinant</a> tuberculosis <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccine</a> rBCG30, entered <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trials</a> in the United States in 2004, sponsored by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Allergy_and_Infectious_Diseases" title="National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases">National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases</a> (NIAID).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-66"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-66"><span>[</span>67<span>]</span></a></sup> A 2005 study showed that a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_vaccine" title="DNA vaccine">DNA TB vaccine</a> given with conventional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a> can accelerate the disappearance of bacteria as well as protect against re-infection in mice; it may take four to five years to be available in humans.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ha_2005_67-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Ha_2005-67"><span>[</span>68<span>]</span></a></sup> A very promising TB vaccine, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVA85A" title="MVA85A">MVA85A</a>, is currently in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">phase II trials</a> in South Africa by a group led by <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ibanga_2006_68-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Ibanga_2006-68"><span>[</span>69<span>]</span></a></sup> and is based on a genetically modified <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccinia" title="Vaccinia">vaccinia</a> virus. Many other strategies are also being used to develop novel vaccines,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-69"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-69"><span>[</span>70<span>]</span></a></sup> including both <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccination#Types_of_vaccinations" title="Vaccination">subunit vaccines</a> (fusion molecules composed of two <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">recombinant</a> proteins delivered in an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunologic_adjuvant" title="Immunologic adjuvant">adjuvant</a>) such as Hybrid-1, HyVac4 or M72, and recombinant <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenovirus" title="Adenovirus">adenoviruses</a> such as Ad35.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-70"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-70"><span>[</span>71<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-71"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-71"><span>[</span>72<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-72"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-72"><span>[</span>73<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-73"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-73"><span>[</span>74<span>]</span></a></sup> Some of these vaccines can be effectively administered without needles, making them preferable for areas where HIV is very common.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-74"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-74"><span>[</span>75<span>]</span></a></sup> All of these vaccines have been successfully tested in humans and are now in extended testing in TB-endemic regions. To encourage further discovery, researchers and policymakers are promoting new economic models of vaccine development including prizes, tax incentives and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advance_market_commitments" title="Advance market commitments">advance market commitments</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-75"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-75"><span>[</span>76<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-76"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-76"><span>[</span>77<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Screening">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Screening">Screening</span></h2><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mantoux_tuberculin_skin_test.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="144" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Mantoux_tuberculin_skin_test.jpg/220px-Mantoux_tuberculin_skin_test.jpg" width="220" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mantoux_tuberculin_skin_test.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantoux_test" title="Mantoux test">Mantoux tuberculin skin test</a></div></div></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantoux_test" title="Mantoux test">Mantoux tuberculin skin tests</a> are often used for routine screening of high risk individuals.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-77"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-77"><span>[</span>78<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon-%CE%B3_release_assays" title="Interferon-γ release assays">Interferon-γ release assays</a> are blood tests used in the diagnosis of some infectious diseases. There are currently two interferon-γ release assays available for the diagnosis of tuberculosis:<br />
<ul><li><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QuantiFERON-TB_Gold" title="QuantiFERON-TB Gold">QuantiFERON-TB Gold</a> (licensed in US, Europe and Japan); and</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-SPOT.TB" title="T-SPOT.TB">T-SPOT.TB</a>, a form of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELISPOT" title="ELISPOT">ELISPOT</a> (licensed in Europe).</li>
</ul><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chest_photofluorography" title="Chest photofluorography">Chest photofluorography</a> has been used in the past for mass screening for tuberculosis.<br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Treatment">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Treatment">Treatment</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_treatment" title="Tuberculosis treatment">Tuberculosis treatment</a></div>Treatment for TB uses <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotics" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a> to kill the bacteria. Effective TB treatment is difficult, due to the unusual structure and chemical composition of the mycobacterial cell wall, which makes many antibiotics ineffective and hinders the entry of drugs.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Acharya_et_al_78-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Acharya_et_al-78"><span>[</span>79<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Migliore_79-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Migliore-79"><span>[</span>80<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Acharya_80-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Acharya-80"><span>[</span>81<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-81"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-81"><span>[</span>82<span>]</span></a></sup> The two antibiotics most commonly used are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifampicin" title="Rifampicin">rifampicin</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoniazid" title="Isoniazid">isoniazid</a>. However, instead of the short course of antibiotics typically used to cure other bacterial infections, TB requires much longer periods of treatment (around 6 to 24 months) to entirely eliminate mycobacteria from the body.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CDCcourse_10-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-CDCcourse-10"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> Latent TB treatment usually uses a single antibiotic, while active TB disease is best treated with combinations of several antibiotics, to reduce the risk of the bacteria developing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-OBrien_82-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-OBrien-82"><span>[</span>83<span>]</span></a></sup> People with latent infections are treated to prevent them from progressing to active TB disease later in life.<br />
Drug-resistant tuberculosis is transmitted in the same way as regular TB. Primary resistance occurs in persons infected with a resistant strain of TB. A patient with fully susceptible TB develops secondary resistance (acquired resistance) during TB therapy because of inadequate treatment, not taking the prescribed regimen appropriately, or using low-quality medication.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-OBrien_82-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-OBrien-82"><span>[</span>83<span>]</span></a></sup> Drug-resistant TB is a public health issue in many developing countries, as treatment is longer and requires more expensive drugs. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-drug-resistant_tuberculosis" title="Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis">Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis</a> (MDR-TB) is defined as resistance to the two most effective first-line TB drugs: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifampicin" title="Rifampicin">rifampicin</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isoniazid" title="Isoniazid">isoniazid</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensively_drug-resistant_tuberculosis" title="Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis">Extensively drug-resistant TB</a> (XDR-TB) is also resistant to three or more of the six classes of second-line drugs.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-MMWR2006_83-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-MMWR2006-83"><span>[</span>84<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
The <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOTS" title="DOTS">DOTS</a> (Directly Observed Treatment Short-course) strategy of tuberculosis treatment recommended by WHO was based on clinical trials done in the 1970s by Tuberculosis Research Centre, Chennai, India. The country in which a person with TB lives can determine what treatment they receive. This is because multidrug-resistant tuberculosis is resistant to most first-line medications, the use of second-line antituberculosis medications is necessary to cure the patient. However, the price of these medications is high; thus poor people in the developing world have no or limited access to these treatments.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-84"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-84"><span>[</span>85<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Recurrence">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Recurrence">Recurrence</span></h2>Studies utilizing DNA fingerprinting of <i>M. tuberculosis</i> strains have shown that reinfection contributes more substantially to recurrent TB than previously thought,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-85"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-85"><span>[</span>86<span>]</span></a></sup> with between 12% and 77% of cases attributable to reinfection (instead of reactivation).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-86"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-86"><span>[</span>87<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Prognosis">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Prognosis">Prognosis</span></h2>Progression from TB infection to TB disease occurs when the TB bacilli overcome the immune system defenses and begin to multiply. In primary TB disease—1–5% of cases—this occurs soon after infection.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-13"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> However, in the majority of cases, a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_tuberculosis" title="Latent tuberculosis">latent infection</a> occurs that has no obvious symptoms.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-14"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup> These dormant bacilli can produce tuberculosis in 2–23% of these latent cases, often many years after infection.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Parrish_1998_87-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Parrish_1998-87"><span>[</span>88<span>]</span></a></sup> The risk of reactivation increases with immunosuppression, such as that caused by infection with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>. In patients co-infected with <i>M. tuberculosis</i> and HIV, the risk of reactivation increases to 10% per year.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-15"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-TDRreport_43-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-TDRreport-43"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Epidemiology">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</span></h2><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuberculosis_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="97" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Tuberculosis_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/220px-Tuberculosis_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png" width="220" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuberculosis_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_adjustment" title="Age adjustment">Age-standardized</a> death from tuberculosis per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-88"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-88"><span>[</span>89<span>]</span></a></sup> <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 3;"><span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #b3b3b3; border: 1px solid rgb(179, 179, 179); color: #b3b3b3;"> </span> no data</span> <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #ffff65; border: 1px solid rgb(255, 255, 101); color: #ffff65;"> </span> ≤ 10</span> <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #fff200; border: 1px solid rgb(255, 242, 0); color: #fff200;"> </span> 10-25</span> <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #ffdc00; border: 1px solid rgb(255, 220, 0); color: #ffdc00;"> </span> 25-50</span> <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #ffc600; border: 1px solid rgb(255, 198, 0); color: #ffc600;"> </span> 50-75</span> <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #ffb000; border: 1px solid rgb(255, 176, 0); color: #ffb000;"> </span> 75-100</span> <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #ff9a00; border: 1px solid rgb(255, 154, 0); color: #ff9a00;"> </span> 100-250</span> <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #ff8400; border: 1px solid rgb(255, 132, 0); color: #ff8400;"> </span> 250-500</span> <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #ff6e00; border: 1px solid rgb(255, 110, 0); color: #ff6e00;"> </span> 500-750</span> <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #ff5800; border: 1px solid rgb(255, 88, 0); color: #ff5800;"> </span> 750-1000</span> <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #ff4200; border: 1px solid rgb(255, 66, 0); color: #ff4200;"> </span> 1000-2000</span> <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #ff2c00; border: 1px solid rgb(255, 44, 0); color: #ff2c00;"> </span> 2000-3000</span> <span style="display: block; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 1px;"><span style="background-color: #cb0000; border: 1px solid rgb(203, 0, 0); color: #cb0000;"> </span> ≥ 3000</span></div></div></div></div><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuberculosis-prevalence-WHO-2009.svg"><img alt="World map with sub-Saharan Africa in various shades of yellow, marking prevalences above 300 per 100,000, and with the U.S., Canada, Australia, and northern Europe in shades of deep blue, marking prevalences around 10 per 100,000. Asia is yellow but not quite so bright, marking prevalences around 200 per 100,000 range. South America is a darker yellow." class="thumbimage" height="97" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Tuberculosis-prevalence-WHO-2009.svg/220px-Tuberculosis-prevalence-WHO-2009.svg.png" width="220" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tuberculosis-prevalence-WHO-2009.svg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>In 2007, the prevalence of TB per 100,000 people was highest in sub-Saharan Africa, and was also relatively high in Asia.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO2009-Burden_89-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-WHO2009-Burden-89"><span>[</span>90<span>]</span></a></sup></div></div></div><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TB_incidence.png"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="147" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/TB_incidence.png/220px-TB_incidence.png" width="220" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TB_incidence.png" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Annual number of new reported TB cases. Data from WHO.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-90"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-90"><span>[</span>91<span>]</span></a></sup></div></div></div>Roughly a third of the world's population has been infected with <i>M. tuberculosis</i>, and new infections occur at a rate of one per second.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO2004data_4-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-WHO2004data-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> However, not all infections with <i>M. tuberculosis</i> cause TB disease and many infections are asymptomatic.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-CDC_91-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-CDC-91"><span>[</span>92<span>]</span></a></sup> In 2007, an estimated 13.7 million people had active TB disease, with 9.3 million new cases and 1.8 million deaths; the annual <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidence_%28epidemiology%29" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">incidence</a> rate varied from 363 per 100,000 in Africa to 32 per 100,000 in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO2009-Epidemiology_5-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-WHO2009-Epidemiology-5"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> Tuberculosis is the world's greatest infectious killer of women of reproductive age and the leading cause of death among people with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-92"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-92"><span>[</span>93<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
The rise in HIV infections and the neglect of TB control programs have enabled a resurgence of tuberculosis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-93"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-93"><span>[</span>94<span>]</span></a></sup> The emergence of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" title="Antibiotic resistance">drug-resistant</a> strains has also contributed to this new epidemic with, from 2000 to 2004, 20% of TB cases being resistant to standard treatments and 2% resistant to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_treatment#Treatment_of_MDR-TB" title="Tuberculosis treatment">second-line drugs</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-MMWR2006_83-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-MMWR2006-83"><span>[</span>84<span>]</span></a></sup> The rate at which new TB cases occur varies widely, even in neighboring countries, apparently because of differences in health care systems.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sobero_2006_94-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Sobero_2006-94"><span>[</span>95<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
In 2007, the country with the highest estimated <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidence_%28epidemiology%29" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">incidence rate</a> of TB was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swaziland" title="Swaziland">Swaziland</a>, with 1200 cases per 100,000 people. India had the largest total incidence, with an estimated 2.0 million new cases.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO2009-Epidemiology_5-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-WHO2009-Epidemiology-5"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> The Philippines ranks fourth in the world for the number of cases of tuberculosis and has the highest number of cases per head in Southeast Asia. Almost two thirds of Filipinos have tuberculosis, and up to an additional five million people are infected yearly.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-95"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-95"><span>[</span>96<span>]</span></a></sup> In developed countries, tuberculosis is less common and is mainly an urban disease. In the United Kingdom, the national average was 15 per 100,000 in 2007, and the highest incidence rates in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> were 30 per 100,000 in Portugal and Spain. These rates compared with 98 per 100,000 in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_in_China" title="Tuberculosis in China">China</a> and 48 per 100,000 in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>. In the United States, the overall tuberculosis case rate was 4 per 100,000 persons in 2007.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHO2009-Burden_89-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-WHO2009-Burden-89"><span>[</span>90<span>]</span></a></sup> In Canada tuberculosis is still endemic in some rural areas.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-96"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-96"><span>[</span>97<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
The incidence of TB varies with age. In Africa, TB primarily affects adolescents and young adults.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-97"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-97"><span>[</span>98<span>]</span></a></sup> However, in countries where TB has gone from high to low incidence, such as the United States, TB is mainly a disease of older people, or of the immunocompromised.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-16"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-98"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-98"><span>[</span>99<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
There are a number of known factors that make people more susceptible to TB infection: worldwide the most important of these is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>. Co-infection with HIV is a particular problem in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>, due to the high incidence of HIV in these countries.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WHOreport_99-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-WHOreport-99"><span>[</span>100<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-100"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-100"><span>[</span>101<span>]</span></a></sup> Smoking more than 20 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigarette" title="Cigarette">cigarettes</a> a day also increases the risk of TB by two to four times.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-101"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-101"><span>[</span>102<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-102"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-102"><span>[</span>103<span>]</span></a></sup> Diabetes mellitus is also an important risk factor that is growing in importance in developing countries.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-pmid17638190_103-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-pmid17638190-103"><span>[</span>104<span>]</span></a></sup> Other disease states that increase the risk of developing tuberculosis are <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hodgkin_lymphoma" title="Hodgkin lymphoma">Hodgkin lymphoma</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_kidney_disease" title="Chronic kidney disease">end-stage renal disease</a>, chronic lung disease, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Robbins_0-17"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Robbins-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Diet may also modulate risk. For example, among immigrants in London from the Indian subcontinent, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetarian" title="Vegetarian">vegetarian</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_people" title="Asian people">Asians</a> were found to have an 8.5 fold increased risk of tuberculosis, compared to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim" title="Muslim">Muslims</a> who ate meat and fish daily.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Strachan_104-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Strachan-104"><span>[</span>105<span>]</span></a></sup> Although a causal link is not proved by this data,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-105"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-105"><span>[</span>106<span>]</span></a></sup> this increased risk could be caused by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micronutrient" title="Micronutrient">micronutrient</a> deficiencies: possibly iron, vitamin B12 or vitamin D.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Strachan_104-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Strachan-104"><span>[</span>105<span>]</span></a></sup> Further studies have provided more evidence of a link between vitamin D deficiency and an increased risk of contracting tuberculosis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-106"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-106"><span>[</span>107<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-107"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-107"><span>[</span>108<span>]</span></a></sup> Globally, the severe <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a> common in parts of the developing world causes a large increase in the risk of developing active tuberculosis, due to its damaging effects on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-108"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-108"><span>[</span>109<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-109"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-109"><span>[</span>110<span>]</span></a></sup> Along with overcrowding, poor nutrition may contribute to the strong link observed between tuberculosis and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-110"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-110"><span>[</span>111<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-111"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-111"><span>[</span>112<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Prisoners, especially in poor countries, are particularly vulnerable to infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS and TB. Prisons provide a conditions that allow TB to spread rapidly, due to overcrowding, poor nutrition and a lack of health services. Since the early 1990s, TB outbreaks have been reported in prisons in many countries in Eastern Europe. The prevalence of TB in prisons is much higher than among the general population – in some countries as much as 40 times higher.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-112"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-112"><span>[</span>113<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-113"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-113"><span>[</span>114<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_tuberculosis" title="History of tuberculosis">History of tuberculosis</a></div>Tuberculosis has been present in humans since <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">antiquity</a>. The earliest unambiguous detection of <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i> is in the remains of bison dated 18,000 years before the present.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Rothschild_2001_114-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Rothschild_2001-114"><span>[</span>115<span>]</span></a></sup> Whether tuberculosis originated in cattle and then transferred to humans, or diverged from a common ancestor infecting a different species, is currently unclear.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Pearce-Duvet_2006_115-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Pearce-Duvet_2006-115"><span>[</span>116<span>]</span></a></sup> However, it is clear that <i>M. tuberculosis</i> is not directly descended from <i>M. bovis</i>, which seems to have evolved relatively recently.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Ernst_116-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Ernst-116"><span>[</span>117<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 222px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mummy_at_British_Museum.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="160" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Mummy_at_British_Museum.jpg/220px-Mummy_at_British_Museum.jpg" width="220" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mummy_at_British_Museum.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Tubercular decay has been found in the spines of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummies</a>. Pictured: Egyptian mummy in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a></div></div></div>Skeletal remains from a Neolithic Settlement in the Eastern Mediterranean show prehistoric humans (7000 <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Before_Christ" title="Before Christ">BC</a>) had TB,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Hershkovitz_2008_117-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Hershkovitz_2008-117"><span>[</span>118<span>]</span></a></sup> and tubercular decay has been found in the spines of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummies</a> from 3000–2400 BC.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Zink_2003_118-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Zink_2003-118"><span>[</span>119<span>]</span></a></sup> Phthisis is a Greek term for tuberculosis; around 460 BC, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> identified phthisis as the most widespread disease of the times involving coughing up blood and fever, which was almost always fatal.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-119"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-119"><span>[</span>120<span>]</span></a></sup> In South America, the earliest evidence of tuberculosis is associated with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paracas_culture" title="Paracas culture">Paracas</a>-Caverna culture (circa 750 BC to circa 100 AD).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-120"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-120"><span>[</span>121<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Konomi_2002_121-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Konomi_2002-121"><span>[</span>122<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other names">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Other_names">Other names</span></h3>In the past, tuberculosis has been called <b>consumption</b>, because it seemed to consume people from within, with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoptysis" title="Hemoptysis">bloody cough</a>, fever, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallor" title="Pallor">pallor</a>, and long relentless wasting. Other names included <i>phthisis</i> (Greek for consumption) and <i>phthisis pulmonalis</i>; <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrofula" title="Scrofula">scrofula</a> (in adults), affecting the lymphatic system and resulting in swollen neck glands; <i>tabes mesenterica</i>, TB of the abdomen and <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupus_vulgaris" title="Lupus vulgaris">lupus vulgaris</a></i>, TB of the skin; wasting disease; white plague, because sufferers appear markedly pale; king's evil, because it was believed that a king's touch would heal scrofula; and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pott%27s_disease" title="Pott's disease">Pott's disease</a>, or gibbus of the spine and joints.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Britannica1911_122-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Britannica1911-122"><span>[</span>123<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-123"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-123"><span>[</span>124<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 172px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RobertKoch.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="237" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/RobertKoch.jpg/170px-RobertKoch.jpg" width="170" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RobertKoch.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Dr. Robert Koch discovered the tuberculosis bacillus.</div></div></div><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miliary_tuberculosis" title="Miliary tuberculosis">Miliary tuberculosis</a></i>—now commonly known as disseminated TB—occurs when the infection invades the circulatory system, resulting in millet-like seeding of TB bacilli in the lungs as seen on an X-ray.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Britannica1911_122-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Britannica1911-122"><span>[</span>123<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-124"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-124"><span>[</span>125<span>]</span></a></sup> TB is also called Koch's disease, after the scientist <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-125"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-125"><span>[</span>126<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Folklore">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Folklore">Folklore</span></h3>Before the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, tuberculosis may sometimes have been regarded as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vampirism" title="Vampirism">vampirism</a>. When one member of a family died from it, the other members that were infected would lose their health slowly. People believed that this was caused by the original victim draining the life from the other family members. Furthermore, people who had TB exhibited symptoms similar to what people considered to be vampire traits. People with TB often have symptoms such as red, swollen eyes (which also creates a sensitivity to bright light), pale skin, extremely low body heat, a weak heart and coughing blood, suggesting the idea that the only way for the afflicted to replenish this loss of blood was by sucking blood.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Sledzik_1994_126-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Sledzik_1994-126"><span>[</span>127<span>]</span></a></sup> Another folk belief told that the affected individual was being forced, nightly, to attend <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy" title="Fairy">fairy</a> revels, so that the victim wasted away owing to lack of rest; this belief was most common when a strong connection was seen between the fairies and the dead.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Briggs_127-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Briggs-127"><span>[</span>128<span>]</span></a></sup> Similarly, but less commonly, it was attributed to the victims being "hagridden"—being transformed into horses by witches (hags) to travel to their nightly meetings, again resulting in a lack of rest.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Briggs_127-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Briggs-127"><span>[</span>128<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
TB was romanticized in the nineteenth century. Many people believed TB produced feelings of euphoria referred to as <i>Spes phthisica</i> ("hope of the consumptive"). It was believed that TB sufferers who were artists had bursts of creativity as the disease progressed. It was also believed that TB sufferers acquired a final burst of energy just before they died that made women more beautiful and men more creative.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-StudiesLiteraryImagination-Clark_128-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-StudiesLiteraryImagination-Clark-128"><span>[</span>129<span>]</span></a></sup> In the early 20th century, some believed TB to be caused by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masturbation" title="Masturbation">masturbation</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-129"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-129"><span>[</span>130<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Study and treatment">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Study_and_treatment">Study and treatment</span></h3><table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content"><tbody>
<tr> <td class="mbox-image"> <div style="width: 52px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg"><img alt="Text document with red question mark.svg" height="40" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" width="40" /></a></div></td> <td class="mbox-text">This section <b>may contain inappropriate or misinterpreted <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:CITE" title="Wikipedia:CITE">citations</a> that do not <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:V" title="Wikipedia:V">verify</a> the text</b>. Please help <a class="external text" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit" rel="nofollow">improve this article</a> by checking for inaccuracies. (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:EDIT" title="Wikipedia:EDIT">help</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Tuberculosis" title="Talk:Tuberculosis">talk</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fact_and_Reference_Check" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check">get involved!</a>) <small><i>(August 2010)</i></small></td> </tr>
</tbody></table>The study of tuberculosis, sometimes known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phthisiatry" title="Phthisiatry">phthisiatry</a>, dates back to <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a></i> written by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina</a> (Avicenna) in the 1020s. He was the first physician to identify pulmonary tuberculosis as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_disease" title="Infectious disease">contagious disease</a>, the first to recognise the association with diabetes, and the first to suggest that it could spread through contact with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-130"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-130"><span>[</span>131<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-131"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-131"><span>[</span>132<span>]</span></a></sup> He developed the method of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">quarantine</a> in order to limit the spread of tuberculosis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-132"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-132"><span>[</span>133<span>]</span></a></sup> In ancient times, treatments focused on sufferers' diets. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> described several methods in his <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_%28Pliny%29" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i>: "wolf's liver taken in thin wine, the lard of a sow that has been fed upon grass, or the flesh of a she-ass taken in broth".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-133"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-133"><span>[</span>134<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Although it was established that the pulmonary form was associated with "tubercles" by <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr_Richard_Morton" title="Dr Richard Morton">Dr Richard Morton</a> in 1689,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-WhoNamedIt-Calmette_134-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-WhoNamedIt-Calmette-134"><span>[</span>135<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-MedHist1970-Trail_135-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-MedHist1970-Trail-135"><span>[</span>136<span>]</span></a></sup> due to the variety of its symptoms, TB was not identified as a single disease until the 1820s and was not named "tuberculosis" until 1839 by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Lukas_Sch%C3%B6nlein" title="Johann Lukas Schönlein">J. L. Schönlein</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-136"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-136"><span>[</span>137<span>]</span></a></sup> During the years 1838 – 1845, Dr. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Croghan" title="John Croghan">John Croghan</a>, the owner of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammoth_Cave" title="Mammoth Cave">Mammoth Cave</a>, brought a number of tuberculosis sufferers into the cave in the hope of curing the disease with the constant temperature and purity of the cave air; they died within a year.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-137"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-137"><span>[</span>138<span>]</span></a></sup> The first TB <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanatorium" title="Sanatorium">sanatorium</a> opened in 1854 in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6rbersdorf" title="Görbersdorf">Görbersdorf, Germany</a> (today <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soko%C5%82owsko" title="Sokołowsko">Sokołowsko, Poland</a>) by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Brehmer" title="Hermann Brehmer">Hermann Brehmer</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-sanatoria_138-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-sanatoria-138"><span>[</span>139<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_%28shape%29" title="Bacillus (shape)">bacillus</a> causing tuberculosis, <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i>, was identified and described on 24 March 1882 by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a>. He received the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_physiology_or_medicine" title="Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine">Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine</a> in 1905 for this discovery.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-139"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-139"><span>[</span>140<span>]</span></a></sup> Koch did not believe that bovine (cattle) and human tuberculosis were similar, which delayed the recognition of infected milk as a source of infection. Later, this source was eliminated by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasteurization" title="Pasteurization">pasteurization</a> process. Koch announced a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerine" title="Glycerine">glycerine</a> extract of the tubercle bacilli as a remedy for tuberculosis in 1890, calling it "tuberculin". It was not effective, but was later adapted as a test for pre-symptomatic tuberculosis.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Waddington_2004_140-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Waddington_2004-140"><span>[</span>141<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
The first genuine success in immunizing against tuberculosis was developed from attenuated bovine-strain tuberculosis by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Calmette" title="Albert Calmette">Albert Calmette</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Gu%C3%A9rin" title="Camille Guérin">Camille Guérin</a> in 1906. It was called "BCG" (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacillus_Calmette-Gu%C3%A9rin" title="Bacillus Calmette-Guérin">Bacillus of Calmette and Guérin</a>). The BCG vaccine was first used on humans in 1921 in France,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Bonah_61-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Bonah-61"><span>[</span>62<span>]</span></a></sup> but it was not until after <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> that BCG received widespread acceptance in the USA, Great Britain, and Germany.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Comstock_62-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Comstock-62"><span>[</span>63<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Tuberculosis, or "consumption" as it was commonly known, caused the most widespread public concern in the 19th and early 20th centuries as an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic_%28epidemiology%29" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">endemic</a> disease of the urban poor.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-141"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-141"><span>[</span>142<span>]</span></a></sup> In 1815, one in four deaths in England was of consumption; by 1918 one in six deaths in France were still caused by TB. In the 20th century, tuberculosis killed an estimated 100 million people.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-142"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-142"><span>[</span>143<span>]</span></a></sup> After the establishment in the 1880s that the disease was contagious, TB was made a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">notifiable disease</a> in Britain; there were campaigns to stop spitting in public places, and the infected poor were pressured to enter <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanatorium" title="Sanatorium">sanatoria</a> that resembled prisons; the sanatoria for the middle and upper classes offered excellent care and constant medical attention.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-sanatoria_138-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-sanatoria-138"><span>[</span>139<span>]</span></a></sup> Whatever the purported benefits of the fresh air and labor in the sanatoria, even under the best conditions, 50% of those who entered were dead within five years (1916).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-sanatoria_138-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-sanatoria-138"><span>[</span>139<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 172px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TB_poster.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="264" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/TB_poster.jpg/170px-TB_poster.jpg" width="170" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TB_poster.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Public health campaigns tried to halt the spread of TB</div></div></div>The promotion of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Seals" title="Christmas Seals">Christmas Seals</a> began in Denmark during 1904 as a way to raise money for tuberculosis programs. It expanded to the United States and Canada in 1907 – 1908 to help the National Tuberculosis Association (later called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Lung_Association" title="American Lung Association">American Lung Association</a>).<br />
In the United States, concern about the spread of tuberculosis played a role in the movement to prohibit public spitting except into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spittoon" title="Spittoon">spittoons</a>.<br />
In Europe, deaths from TB fell from 500 out of 100,000 in 1850 to 50 out of 100,000 by 1950. Improvements in public health were reducing tuberculosis even before the arrival of antibiotics. The disease remained such a significant threat to public health, that when the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_%28UK%29" title="Medical Research Council (UK)">Medical Research Council</a> was formed in Britain in 1913, its initial focus was tuberculosis research.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-143"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-143"><span>[</span>144<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
It was not until 1946 with the development of the antibiotic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptomycin" title="Streptomycin">streptomycin</a> that effective treatment and cure became possible. Prior to the introduction of this drug, the only treatment besides sanatoria were surgical interventions, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronchoscopy" title="Bronchoscopy">bronchoscopy</a> and suction as well as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumothorax" title="Pneumothorax">pneumothorax</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plombage" title="Plombage">plombage</a> technique — collapsing an infected lung to "rest" it and allow lesions to heal — a technique that was of little benefit and was mostly discontinued by the 1950s.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Wolfart_1990_144-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Wolfart_1990-144"><span>[</span>145<span>]</span></a></sup> The emergence of multidrug-resistant TB has again introduced surgery as part of the treatment for these infections. Here, surgical removal of chest cavities will reduce the number of bacteria in the lungs, as well as increasing the exposure of the remaining bacteria to drugs in the bloodstream. It is therefore thought to increase the effectiveness of the chemotherapy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Lalloo_2006_145-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Lalloo_2006-145"><span>[</span>146<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Hopes that the disease could be completely eliminated have been dashed since the rise of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" title="Antibiotic resistance">drug-resistant</a> strains in the 1980s. For example, tuberculosis cases in Britain, numbering around 117,000 in 1913, had fallen to around 5,000 in 1987, but cases rose again, reaching 6,300 in 2000 and 7,600 cases in 2005.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-146"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-146"><span>[</span>147<span>]</span></a></sup> Due to the elimination of public health facilities in New York and the emergence of HIV, there was a resurgence of TB in the late 1980s.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Paolo_2004_147-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Paolo_2004-147"><span>[</span>148<span>]</span></a></sup> The number of patients failing to complete their course of drugs is high. New York had to cope with more than 20,000 TB patients with <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multidrug-resistance" title="Multidrug-resistance">multidrug-resistant</a> strains (resistant to, at least, both Rifampin and Isoniazid).<br />
The resurgence of tuberculosis resulted in the declaration of a global health emergency by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1993.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-148"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-148"><span>[</span>149<span>]</span></a></sup> Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-149"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-149"><span>[</span>150<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Evolution">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Evolution">Evolution</span></h3>Tuberculosis has <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-evolution" title="Co-evolution">co-evolved</a> with humans for many thousands of years, and perhaps for several million years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-150"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-150"><span>[</span>151<span>]</span></a></sup> The oldest known human remains showing signs of tuberculosis infection are 9,000 years old.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-151"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-151"><span>[</span>152<span>]</span></a></sup> During this <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, <i>M. tuberculosis</i> has lost numerous coding and non-coding regions in its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>, losses that can be used to distinguish between strains of the bacteria. The implication is that <i>M. tuberculosis</i> strains differ geographically, so their genetic differences can be used to track the origins and movement of each strain.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Rao_2005_152-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Rao_2005-152"><span>[</span>153<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
A new species has recently been discovered for the first time in 20 years.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-153"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-153"><span>[</span>154<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-154"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-154"><span>[</span>155<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</span></h2><div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis_in_popular_culture" title="Tuberculosis in popular culture">Tuberculosis in popular culture</a></div>Through its affecting important historical figures, tuberculosis has influenced particularly European history, and become a theme in art – mostly literature, music, and film.<br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Public health">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Public_health">Public health</span></h3>Tuberculosis is one of the three primary <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">diseases of poverty</a> along with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-155"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-155"><span>[</span>156<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Global_Fund_to_Fight_AIDS,_Tuberculosis_and_Malaria" title="The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria">The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria</a> was started in 2002 to raise finances to address these infectious diseases. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization</a> has led to increased opportunities for disease spread. A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_tuberculosis_scare" title="2007 tuberculosis scare">tuberculosis scare occurred in 2007</a> when Andrew Speaker flew on a transatlantic flight infected with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-drug-resistant_tuberculosis" title="Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis">multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-156"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-156"><span>[</span>157<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
In the United States, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_HIV,_STD,_and_TB_Prevention" title="National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention">National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention</a>, as part of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC), is responsible for public health surveillance and prevention research.<br />
<h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Notable victims">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Notable_victims">Notable victims</span></h3><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tuberculosis_victims" title="List of tuberculosis victims">List of tuberculosis victims</a></div><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Research">Research</span></h2>The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_Tuberculosis_Structural_Genomics_Consortium" title="Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Structural Genomics Consortium">Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Structural Genomics Consortium</a> is a global consortium of scientists conducting research regarding the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis. They are attempting to determine the 3-dimensional structures of proteins from <i>M. Tuberculosis</i>.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="white-space: nowrap;" title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from June 2009">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a></i>]</sup><br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: In other animals">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="In_other_animals">In other animals</span></h2><div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_bovis" title="Mycobacterium bovis">Mycobacterium bovis</a></div>Tuberculosis can be carried by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>; domesticated species, such as cats and dogs, are generally free of tuberculosis, but wild animals may be carriers.<br />
<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycobacterium_bovis" title="Mycobacterium bovis">Mycobacterium bovis</a></i> causes TB in cattle. An effort to eradicate bovine tuberculosis from the cattle and deer herds of New Zealand is underway. It has been found that herd infection is more likely in areas where infected <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_reservoir" title="Natural reservoir">natural reservoir</a> such as Australian <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possums" title="Possums">brush-tailed possums</a> come into contact with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">domestic livestock</a> at farm/bush borders.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Tweddle_1994_157-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-Tweddle_1994-157"><span>[</span>158<span>]</span></a></sup> Controlling the vectors through possum eradication and monitoring the level of disease in livestock herds through regular surveillance are seen as a "two-pronged" approach to ridding New Zealand of the disease.<br />
In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a> and the United Kingdom, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Badger" title="Eurasian Badger">badgers</a> have been identified as one vector species for the transmission of bovine tuberculosis. As a result, governments have come under pressure from some quarters, primarily dairy farmers, to mount an active campaign of eradication of badgers in certain areas with the purpose of reducing the incidence of bovine TB. The effectiveness of culling on the incidence of TB in cattle is a contentious issue, with proponents and opponents citing their own studies to support their position.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-158"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-158"><span>[</span>159<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-159"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-159"><span>[</span>160<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-160"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-160"><span>[</span>161<span>]</span></a></sup> For instance, a study by an Independent Study Group on badger culling reported on 18 June 2007 that it was unlikely to be effective and would only make a “modest difference” to the spread of TB and that "badger culling cannot meaningfully contribute to the future control of cattle TB"; in contrast, another report concluded that this policy would have a significant impact.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-161"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-161"><span>[</span>162<span>]</span></a></sup> On 4 July 2008, the UK government decided against a proposed random culling policy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-162"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_note-162"><span>[</span>163<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2><div class="references-small references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"><li id="cite_note-Robbins-0">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Robbins_0-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <span class="citation book">Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson; & Mitchell, Richard N. (2007). <i>Robbins Basic Pathology</i> (8th ed.). Saunders Elsevier. pp. 516–522. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-2973-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4160-2973-1">978-1-4160-2973-1</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robbins+Basic+Pathology&rft.aulast=Kumar%2C+Vinay%3B+Abbas%2C+Abul+K.%3B+Fausto%2C+Nelson%3B+%26+Mitchell%2C+Richard+N.&rft.au=Kumar%2C+Vinay%3B+Abbas%2C+Abul+K.%3B+Fausto%2C+Nelson%3B+%26+Mitchell%2C+Richard+N.&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B516%E2%80%93522&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Saunders+Elsevier&rft.isbn=978-1-4160-2973-1&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-AP-1">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-AP_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-AP_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> Konstantinos, A (2010). "Testing for tuberculosis". <i>Australian Prescriber</i>, 33:12-18. <a class="external free" href="http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/33/1/12/18/" rel="nofollow">http://www.australianprescriber.com/magazine/33/1/12/18/</a></li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-2">^</a></b> <a class="external text" href="http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/index.html" rel="nofollow">WHO Tuberculosis Factsheet</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, March 2010</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-3">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Jasmer RM, Nahid P, Hopewell PC (December 2002). <a class="external text" href="http://jasoncartermd.com/resources/pdf/Latent%20TB%20Infection.pdf" rel="nofollow">"Clinical practice. Latent tuberculosis infection"</a>. <i>N. Engl. J. Med.</i> <b>347</b> (23): 1860–6. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMcp021045" rel="nofollow">10.1056/NEJMcp021045</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12466511" rel="nofollow">12466511</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://jasoncartermd.com/resources/pdf/Latent%20TB%20Infection.pdf" rel="nofollow">http://jasoncartermd.com/resources/pdf/Latent%20TB%20Infection.pdf</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Clinical+practice.+Latent+tuberculosis+infection&rft.jtitle=N.+Engl.+J.+Med.&rft.aulast=Jasmer+RM%2C+Nahid+P%2C+Hopewell+PC&rft.au=Jasmer+RM%2C+Nahid+P%2C+Hopewell+PC&rft.date=December+2002&rft.volume=347&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=1860%E2%80%936&rft_id=info:doi/10.1056%2FNEJMcp021045&rft_id=info:pmid/12466511&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjasoncartermd.com%2Fresources%2Fpdf%2FLatent%2520TB%2520Infection.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span>, which cites "Dolin PJ, Raviglione MC, Kochi A. <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2486541/pdf/bullwho00413-0034.pdf" rel="nofollow">Global tuberculosis incidence and mortality during 1990-2000</a>. Bull World Health Organ 1994;72:213-20."</li>
<li id="cite_note-WHO2004data-4">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-WHO2004data_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-WHO2004data_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-WHO2004data_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-WHO2004data_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-WHO2004data_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <span class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/index.html" rel="nofollow">"Tuberculosis"</a>. World Health Organization. 2007<span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/index.html" rel="nofollow">http://who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs104/en/index.html</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 12 November 2009</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Tuberculosis&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2007&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwho.int%2Fmediacentre%2Ffactsheets%2Ffs104%2Fen%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span> Fact sheet N<sup>o</sup> 104.</li>
<li id="cite_note-WHO2009-Epidemiology-5">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-WHO2009-Epidemiology_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-WHO2009-Epidemiology_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-WHO2009-Epidemiology_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <span class="citation book">World Health Organization (2009). <a class="external text" href="http://who.int/entity/tb/publications/global_report/2009/pdf/chapter1.pdf" rel="nofollow">"Epidemiology"</a>. <i>Global tuberculosis control: epidemiology, strategy, financing</i>. pp. 6–33. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789241563802" title="Special:BookSources/9789241563802">9789241563802</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://who.int/entity/tb/publications/global_report/2009/pdf/chapter1.pdf" rel="nofollow">http://who.int/entity/tb/publications/global_report/2009/pdf/chapter1.pdf</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 12 November 2009</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Epidemiology&rft.atitle=Global+tuberculosis+control%3A+epidemiology%2C+strategy%2C+financing&rft.aulast=World+Health+Organization&rft.au=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2009&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B6%E2%80%9333&rft.isbn=9789241563802&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-6">^</a></b> <a class="external text" href="http://www.emedicinehealth.com/tuberculosis/page3_em.htm" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis Symptoms</a> From <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMedicine" title="EMedicine">eMedicine</a>Health. Author: George Schiffman, MD, FCCP. Last Editorial Review: 1/15/2009</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-7">^</a></b> Additional symptoms for primary/early pulmonary infection: <a class="external text" href="http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/t/tuberculosis/symptoms.htm" rel="nofollow">wrongdiagnosis.com --> Diseases » Tuberculosis » Symptoms</a> Retrieved on 1 June 2009</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-8">^</a></b> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ted.com/talks/bart_weetjens_how_i_taught_rats_to_sniff_out_land_mines.html" rel="nofollow">Video of a talk by Bart Weetjens about his use of trained rats for detecting TB</a></li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-9">^</a></b> <a class="external text" href="http://www.aafp.org/afp/20051101/1761.html" rel="nofollow">Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: An Overview</a> MARJORIE P. GOLDEN, M.D., Yale University School of Medicine and Hospital of Saint Raphael, New Haven, Connecticut. HOLENARASIPUR R. VIKRAM, M.D., Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona.</li>
<li id="cite_note-CDCcourse-10">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-CDCcourse_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-CDCcourse_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-CDCcourse_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-CDCcourse_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-CDCcourse_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-CDCcourse_10-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC), Division of Tuberculosis Elimination. <a class="external text" href="http://www.cdc.gov/tb/?404;http://www.cdc.gov:80/tb/pubs/corecurr/default.htm" rel="nofollow">Core Curriculum on Tuberculosis: What the Clinician Should Know.</a> 4th edition (2000). Updated August 2003.</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-11">^</a></b> <span class="citation book">Southwick, Frederick (10 December 2007). <a class="external text" href="http://pharma-books.blogspot.com/2009/01/infectious-disease-clinical-short.html" rel="nofollow">"Chapter 4: Pulmonary Infections"</a>. <i>Infectious Diseases: A Clinical Short Course, 2nd ed.</i>. McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division. p. 104. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0071477225" title="Special:BookSources/0071477225">0071477225</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://pharma-books.blogspot.com/2009/01/infectious-disease-clinical-short.html" rel="nofollow">http://pharma-books.blogspot.com/2009/01/infectious-disease-clinical-short.html</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Chapter+4%3A+Pulmonary+Infections&rft.atitle=Infectious+Diseases%3A+A+Clinical+Short+Course%2C+2nd+ed.&rft.aulast=Southwick&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft.au=Southwick%2C%26%2332%3BFrederick&rft.date=10+December+2007&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B104&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical+Publishing+Division&rft.isbn=0071477225&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpharma-books.blogspot.com%2F2009%2F01%2Finfectious-disease-clinical-short.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Cox_2004-12"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Cox_2004_12-0">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Cox R (2004). <a class="external text" href="http://mic.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/full/150/5/1413?view=long&pmid=15133103#R35" rel="nofollow">"Quantitative relationships for specific growth rates and macromolecular compositions of <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i>, <i>Streptomyces coelicolor</i> A3(2) and <i>Escherichia coli</i> B/r: an integrative theoretical approach"</a>. <i>Microbiology</i> <b>150</b> (Pt 5): 1413–26. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1099%2Fmic.0.26560-0" rel="nofollow">10.1099/mic.0.26560-0</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15133103" rel="nofollow">15133103</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://mic.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/full/150/5/1413?view=long&pmid=15133103#R35" rel="nofollow">http://mic.sgmjournals.org/cgi/content/full/150/5/1413?view=long&pmid=15133103#R35</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Quantitative+relationships+for+specific+growth+rates+and+macromolecular+compositions+of+%27%27Mycobacterium+tuberculosis%27%27%2C+%27%27Streptomyces+coelicolor%27%27+A3%282%29+and+%27%27Escherichia+coli%27%27+B%2Fr%3A+an+integrative+theoretical+approach&rft.jtitle=Microbiology&rft.aulast=Cox+R&rft.au=Cox+R&rft.date=2004&rft.volume=150&rft.issue=Pt+5&rft.pages=1413%E2%80%9326&rft_id=info:doi/10.1099%2Fmic.0.26560-0&rft_id=info:pmid/15133103&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmic.sgmjournals.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F150%2F5%2F1413%3Fview%3Dlong%26pmid%3D15133103%23R35&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Madison_2001-13">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Madison_2001_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Madison_2001_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <span class="citation Journal">Madison B (2001). "Application of stains in clinical microbiology". <i>Biotech Histochem</i> <b>76</b> (3): 119–25. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F714028138" rel="nofollow">10.1080/714028138</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11475314" rel="nofollow">11475314</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Application+of+stains+in+clinical+microbiology&rft.jtitle=Biotech+Histochem&rft.aulast=Madison+B&rft.au=Madison+B&rft.date=2001&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=119%E2%80%9325&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080%2F714028138&rft_id=info:pmid/11475314&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Parish_1999-14"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Parish_1999_14-0">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Parish T, Stoker N (1999). "Mycobacteria: bugs and bugbears (two steps forward and one step back)". <i>Mol Biotechnol</i> <b>13</b> (3): 191–200. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1385%2FMB%3A13%3A3%3A191" rel="nofollow">10.1385/MB:13:3:191</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10934532" rel="nofollow">10934532</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Mycobacteria%3A+bugs+and+bugbears+%28two+steps+forward+and+one+step+back%29&rft.jtitle=Mol+Biotechnol&rft.aulast=Parish+T%2C+Stoker+N&rft.au=Parish+T%2C+Stoker+N&rft.date=1999&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=191%E2%80%93200&rft_id=info:doi/10.1385%2FMB%3A13%3A3%3A191&rft_id=info:pmid/10934532&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-16">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Niemann S, Rüsch-Gerdes S, Joloba ML, <i>et al.</i> (September 2002). <a class="external text" href="http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12202584" rel="nofollow">"<i>Mycobacterium africanum</i> subtype II is associated with two distinct genotypes and is a major cause of human tuberculosis in Kampala, Uganda"</a>. <i>J. Clin. Microbiol.</i> <b>40</b> (9): 3398–405. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1128%2FJCM.40.9.3398-3405.2002" rel="nofollow">10.1128/JCM.40.9.3398-3405.2002</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12202584" rel="nofollow">12202584</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=130701" rel="nofollow">130701</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12202584" rel="nofollow">http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12202584</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27%27Mycobacterium+africanum%27%27+subtype+II+is+associated+with+two+distinct+genotypes+and+is+a+major+cause+of+human+tuberculosis+in+Kampala%2C+Uganda&rft.jtitle=J.+Clin.+Microbiol.&rft.aulast=Niemann+S%2C+R%C3%BCsch-Gerdes+S%2C+Joloba+ML%2C+%27%27et+al.%27%27&rft.au=Niemann+S%2C+R%C3%BCsch-Gerdes+S%2C+Joloba+ML%2C+%27%27et+al.%27%27&rft.date=September+2002&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=3398%E2%80%93405&rft_id=info:doi/10.1128%2FJCM.40.9.3398-3405.2002&rft_id=info:pmid/12202584&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjcm.asm.org%2Fcgi%2Fpmidlookup%3Fview%3Dlong%26pmid%3D12202584&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
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<li id="cite_note-MMWR2006-83">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-MMWR2006_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-MMWR2006_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <span class="citation Journal">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2006). <a class="external text" href="http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5511a2.htm" rel="nofollow">"Emergence of <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i> with extensive resistance to second-line drugs—worldwide, 2000–2004"</a>. <i>MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep</i> <b>55</b> (11): 301–5. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16557213" rel="nofollow">16557213</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5511a2.htm" rel="nofollow">http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5511a2.htm</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Emergence+of+%27%27Mycobacterium+tuberculosis%27%27+with+extensive+resistance+to+second-line+drugs%E2%80%94worldwide%2C+2000%E2%80%932004&rft.jtitle=MMWR+Morb+Mortal+Wkly+Rep&rft.aulast=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention+%28CDC%29&rft.au=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention+%28CDC%29&rft.date=2006&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=301%E2%80%935&rft_id=info:pmid/16557213&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fmmwr%2Fpreview%2Fmmwrhtml%2Fmm5511a2.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-84"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-84">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Farmer P (July 2001). "The major infectious diseases in the world--to treat or not to treat?". <i>N. Engl. J. Med.</i> <b>345</b> (3): 208–10. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM200107193450310" rel="nofollow">10.1056/NEJM200107193450310</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11463018" rel="nofollow">11463018</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+major+infectious+diseases+in+the+world--to+treat+or+not+to+treat%3F&rft.jtitle=N.+Engl.+J.+Med.&rft.aulast=Farmer+P&rft.au=Farmer+P&rft.date=July+2001&rft.volume=345&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=208%E2%80%9310&rft_id=info:doi/10.1056%2FNEJM200107193450310&rft_id=info:pmid/11463018&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-85">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Lambert, M; Hasker; Deun; Roberfroid; Boelaert; Vanderstuyft (2003). "Recurrence in tuberculosis: relapse or reinfection?". <i>The Lancet Infectious Diseases</i> <b>3</b> (5): 282. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2803%2900607-8" rel="nofollow">10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00607-8</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12726976" rel="nofollow">12726976</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Recurrence+in+tuberculosis%3A+relapse+or+reinfection%3F&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet+Infectious+Diseases&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Lambert%2C%26%2332%3BM&rft.au=Hasker&rft.au=Deun&rft.au=Roberfroid&rft.au=Boelaert&rft.au=Vanderstuyft&rft.date=2003&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=282&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2803%2900607-8&rft_id=info:pmid/12726976&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-86">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Verver, S; Warren; Beyers; Richardson; Van Der Spuy; Borgdorff; Enarson; Behr <i>et al</i>. (2005). "Rate of reinfection tuberculosis after successful treatment is higher than rate of new tuberculosis.". <i>American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine</i> <b>171</b> (12): 1430–5. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1164%2Frccm.200409-1200OC" rel="nofollow">10.1164/rccm.200409-1200OC</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15831840" rel="nofollow">15831840</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Rate+of+reinfection+tuberculosis+after+successful+treatment+is+higher+than+rate+of+new+tuberculosis.&rft.jtitle=American+journal+of+respiratory+and+critical+care+medicine&rft.aulast=Verver&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Verver%2C%26%2332%3BS&rft.au=Warren&rft.au=Beyers&rft.au=Richardson&rft.au=Van+Der+Spuy&rft.au=Borgdorff&rft.au=Enarson&rft.au=Behr&rft.au=Van+Helden&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=171&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1430%E2%80%935&rft_id=info:doi/10.1164%2Frccm.200409-1200OC&rft_id=info:pmid/15831840&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span> See also: <ul><li><span class="citation Journal">Das, S; Chan; Allen; Mitchison; Lowrie (1993). "Application of DNA fingerprinting with IS986 to sequential mycobacterial isolates obtained from pulmonary tuberculosis patients in Hong Kong before, during and after short-course chemotherapy.". <i>Tubercle and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease</i> <b>74</b> (1): 47–51. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8098637" rel="nofollow">8098637</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Application+of+DNA+fingerprinting+with+IS986+to+sequential+mycobacterial+isolates+obtained+from+pulmonary+tuberculosis+patients+in+Hong+Kong+before%2C+during+and+after+short-course+chemotherapy.&rft.jtitle=Tubercle+and+lung+disease+%3A+the+official+journal+of+the+International+Union+against+Tuberculosis+and+Lung+Disease&rft.aulast=Das&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Das%2C%26%2332%3BS&rft.au=Chan&rft.au=Allen&rft.au=Mitchison&rft.au=Lowrie&rft.date=1993&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=47%E2%80%9351&rft_id=info:pmid/8098637&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation Journal">Das, S; Paramasivan; Lowrie; Prabhakar; Narayanan (1995). "IS6110 restriction fragment length polymorphism typing of clinical isolates of <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i> from patients with pulmonary tuberculosis in Madras, south India.". <i>Tubercle and lung disease : the official journal of the International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease</i> <b>76</b> (6): 550–4. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8593378" rel="nofollow">8593378</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=IS6110+restriction+fragment+length+polymorphism+typing+of+clinical+isolates+of+%27%27Mycobacterium+tuberculosis%27%27+from+patients+with+pulmonary+tuberculosis+in+Madras%2C+south+India.&rft.jtitle=Tubercle+and+lung+disease+%3A+the+official+journal+of+the+International+Union+against+Tuberculosis+and+Lung+Disease&rft.aulast=Das&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Das%2C%26%2332%3BS&rft.au=Paramasivan&rft.au=Lowrie&rft.au=Prabhakar&rft.au=Narayanan&rft.date=1995&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=550%E2%80%934&rft_id=info:pmid/8593378&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation Journal">García De Viedma, D; Marín; Hernangómez; Díaz; Ruiz Serrano; Alcalá; Bouza (2002). "Tuberculosis recurrences: reinfection plays a role in a population whose clinical/epidemiological characteristics do not favor reinfection.". <i>Archives of internal medicine</i> <b>162</b> (16): 1873–9. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Farchinte.162.16.1873" rel="nofollow">10.1001/archinte.162.16.1873</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12196086" rel="nofollow">12196086</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Tuberculosis+recurrences%3A+reinfection+plays+a+role+in+a+population+whose+clinical%2Fepidemiological+characteristics+do+not+favor+reinfection.&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+internal+medicine&rft.aulast=Garc%C3%ADa+De+Viedma&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Garc%C3%ADa+De+Viedma%2C%26%2332%3BD&rft.au=Mar%C3%ADn&rft.au=Hernang%C3%B3mez&rft.au=D%C3%ADaz&rft.au=Ruiz+Serrano&rft.au=Alcal%C3%A1&rft.au=Bouza&rft.date=2002&rft.volume=162&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=1873%E2%80%939&rft_id=info:doi/10.1001%2Farchinte.162.16.1873&rft_id=info:pmid/12196086&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation Journal">Van Rie, A; Warren; Richardson; Victor; Gie; Enarson; Beyers; Van Helden (1999). "Exogenous reinfection as a cause of recurrent tuberculosis after curative treatment.". <i>The New England journal of medicine</i> <b>341</b> (16): 1174–9. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJM199910143411602" rel="nofollow">10.1056/NEJM199910143411602</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10519895" rel="nofollow">10519895</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Exogenous+reinfection+as+a+cause+of+recurrent+tuberculosis+after+curative+treatment.&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+journal+of+medicine&rft.aulast=Van+Rie&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Van+Rie%2C%26%2332%3BA&rft.au=Warren&rft.au=Richardson&rft.au=Victor&rft.au=Gie&rft.au=Enarson&rft.au=Beyers&rft.au=Van+Helden&rft.date=1999&rft.volume=341&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=1174%E2%80%939&rft_id=info:doi/10.1056%2FNEJM199910143411602&rft_id=info:pmid/10519895&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no11/pdfs/05-1207.pdf" rel="nofollow">"Recurrent Tuberculosis and Exogenous Reinfection, Shanghai, China"</a>. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention<span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no11/pdfs/05-1207.pdf" rel="nofollow">http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no11/pdfs/05-1207.pdf</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 19 October 2009</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Recurrent+Tuberculosis+and+Exogenous+Reinfection%2C+Shanghai%2C+China&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fncidod%2FEID%2Fvol12no11%2Fpdfs%2F05-1207.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
</ul></li>
<li id="cite_note-Parrish_1998-87"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Parrish_1998_87-0">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Parrish N, Dick J, Bishai W (1998). "Mechanisms of latency in <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i>". <i>Trends Microbiol</i> <b>6</b> (3): 107–12. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2FS0966-842X%2898%2901216-5" rel="nofollow">10.1016/S0966-842X(98)01216-5</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9582936" rel="nofollow">9582936</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Mechanisms+of+latency+in+%27%27Mycobacterium+tuberculosis%27%27&rft.jtitle=Trends+Microbiol&rft.aulast=Parrish+N%2C+Dick+J%2C+Bishai+W&rft.au=Parrish+N%2C+Dick+J%2C+Bishai+W&rft.date=1998&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=107%E2%80%9312&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2FS0966-842X%2898%2901216-5&rft_id=info:pmid/9582936&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-88">^</a></b> <span class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html" rel="nofollow">"WHO Disease and injury country estimates"</a>. <i>World Health Organization</i>. 2004<span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html" rel="nofollow">http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 11 November 2009</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=WHO+Disease+and+injury+country+estimates&rft.atitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2004&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fhealthinfo%2Fglobal_burden_disease%2Festimates_country%2Fen%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-WHO2009-Burden-89">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-WHO2009-Burden_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-WHO2009-Burden_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <span class="citation book">World Health Organization (2009). <a class="external text" href="http://who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2009/annex_3/en/index.html" rel="nofollow">"The Stop TB Strategy, case reports, treatment outcomes and estimates of TB burden"</a>. <i>Global tuberculosis control: epidemiology, strategy, financing</i>. pp. 187–300. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789241563802" title="Special:BookSources/9789241563802">9789241563802</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2009/annex_3/en/index.html" rel="nofollow">http://who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2009/annex_3/en/index.html</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 14 November 2009</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=The+Stop+TB+Strategy%2C+case+reports%2C+treatment+outcomes+and+estimates+of+TB+burden&rft.atitle=Global+tuberculosis+control%3A+epidemiology%2C+strategy%2C+financing&rft.aulast=World+Health+Organization&rft.au=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2009&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B187%E2%80%93300&rft.isbn=9789241563802&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-90"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-90">^</a></b> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) <a class="external text" href="http://www.who.int/tb/publications/global_report/2008/annex_3/en/index.html" rel="nofollow">WHO report 2008: Global tuberculosis control</a> Retrieved on 13 April 2009.</li>
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<li id="cite_note-Zink_2003-118"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Zink_2003_118-0">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Zink A, Sola C, Reischl U, Grabner W, Rastogi N, Wolf H, Nerlich A (2003). <a class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=149558" rel="nofollow">"Characterization of <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i> complex DNAs from Egyptian mummies by spoligotyping"</a>. <i>J Clin Microbiol</i> <b>41</b> (1): 359–67. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1128%2FJCM.41.1.359-367.2003" rel="nofollow">10.1128/JCM.41.1.359-367.2003</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12517873" rel="nofollow">12517873</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Characterization+of+%27%27Mycobacterium+tuberculosis%27%27+complex+DNAs+from+Egyptian+mummies+by+spoligotyping&rft.jtitle=J+Clin+Microbiol&rft.aulast=Zink+A%2C+Sola+C%2C+Reischl+U%2C+Grabner+W%2C+Rastogi+N%2C+Wolf+H%2C+Nerlich+A&rft.au=Zink+A%2C+Sola+C%2C+Reischl+U%2C+Grabner+W%2C+Rastogi+N%2C+Wolf+H%2C+Nerlich+A&rft.date=2003&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=359%E2%80%9367&rft_id=info:doi/10.1128%2FJCM.41.1.359-367.2003&rft_id=info:pmid/12517873&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-119"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-119">^</a></b> Hippocrates. <a class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20050211173218/http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/aphorisms.mb.txt" rel="nofollow">Aphorisms.</a>. Retrieved 7 October 2006.</li>
<li id="cite_note-120"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-120">^</a></b> <a class="external text" href="http://memorias.ioc.fiocruz.br/98sup/6psa.html" rel="nofollow">"South America: Prehistoric Findings"</a>. <i>Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz</i>, Vol. 98 (Suppl.I) January 2003. Retrieved on 8 February 2007.</li>
<li id="cite_note-Konomi_2002-121"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Konomi_2002_121-0">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Konomi N, Lebwohl E, Mowbray K, Tattersall I, Zhang D (2002). <a class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=154635" rel="nofollow">"Detection of mycobacterial DNA in Andean mummies"</a>. <i>J Clin Microbiol</i> <b>40</b> (12): 4738–40. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1128%2FJCM.40.12.4738-4740.2002" rel="nofollow">10.1128/JCM.40.12.4738-4740.2002</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12454182" rel="nofollow">12454182</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Detection+of+mycobacterial+DNA+in+Andean+mummies&rft.jtitle=J+Clin+Microbiol&rft.aulast=Konomi+N%2C+Lebwohl+E%2C+Mowbray+K%2C+Tattersall+I%2C+Zhang+D&rft.au=Konomi+N%2C+Lebwohl+E%2C+Mowbray+K%2C+Tattersall+I%2C+Zhang+D&rft.date=2002&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=4738%E2%80%9340&rft_id=info:doi/10.1128%2FJCM.40.12.4738-4740.2002&rft_id=info:pmid/12454182&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Britannica1911-122">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Britannica1911_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Britannica1911_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Tuberculosis" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis</a> <i>Encyclopedia Britannica,</i> 11th ed.</li>
<li id="cite_note-123"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-123">^</a></b> <a class="external text" href="http://www.antiquusmorbus.com/English/English.htm" rel="nofollow">"Rudy's List of Archaic Medical Terms"</a>, <i>English Glossary of Archaic Medical Terms, Diseases and Causes of Death</i>. Retrieved 9 October 2006.</li>
<li id="cite_note-124"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-124">^</a></b> <a class="external text" href="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000624.htm" rel="nofollow">Disseminated tuberculosis</a> NIH Medical Encyclopedia. Retrieved 9 October 2006.</li>
<li id="cite_note-125"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-125">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Bhansali SK (April 1977). "Abdominal tuberculosis. Experiences with 300 cases". <i>Am. J. Gastroenterol.</i> <b>67</b> (4): 324–37. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/879148" rel="nofollow">879148</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Abdominal+tuberculosis.+Experiences+with+300+cases&rft.jtitle=Am.+J.+Gastroenterol.&rft.aulast=Bhansali+SK&rft.au=Bhansali+SK&rft.date=April+1977&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=324%E2%80%9337&rft_id=info:pmid/879148&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Sledzik_1994-126"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Sledzik_1994_126-0">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Sledzik P, Bellantoni N (1994). <a class="external text" href="http://users.net1plus.com/vyrdolak/tableone.htm" rel="nofollow">"Brief communication: bioarcheological and biocultural evidence for the New England vampire folk belief"</a>. <i>Am J Phys Anthropol</i> <b>94</b> (2): 269–74. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fajpa.1330940210" rel="nofollow">10.1002/ajpa.1330940210</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8085617" rel="nofollow">8085617</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://users.net1plus.com/vyrdolak/tableone.htm" rel="nofollow">http://users.net1plus.com/vyrdolak/tableone.htm</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Brief+communication%3A+bioarcheological+and+biocultural+evidence+for+the+New+England+vampire+folk+belief&rft.jtitle=Am+J+Phys+Anthropol&rft.aulast=Sledzik+P%2C+Bellantoni+N&rft.au=Sledzik+P%2C+Bellantoni+N&rft.date=1994&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=269%E2%80%9374&rft_id=info:doi/10.1002%2Fajpa.1330940210&rft_id=info:pmid/8085617&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.net1plus.com%2Fvyrdolak%2Ftableone.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;" title=" since March 2010">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a></i>]</span></sup></li>
<li id="cite_note-Briggs-127">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Briggs_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Briggs_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharine_Mary_Briggs" title="Katharine Mary Briggs">Katharine Briggs</a>, "Consumption" ,<i>An Encyclopedia of Fairies</i>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantheon_Books" title="Pantheon Books">Pantheon Books</a>, 1976, p. 80. <a class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/039473467X">ISBN 0-394-73467-X</a></li>
<li id="cite_note-StudiesLiteraryImagination-Clark-128"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-StudiesLiteraryImagination-Clark_128-0">^</a></b> Lawlor, Clark. "Transatlantic Consumptions: Disease, Fame and Literary Nationalism in the Davidson Sisters, Southey, and Poe", <i>Studies in the Literary Imagination</i>, Fall 2003. Available at <a class="external text" href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3822/is_200310/ai_n9310101" rel="nofollow">findarticles.com.</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;" title=" since November 2010">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a></i>]</span></sup> Retrieved on 8 June 2007.</li>
<li id="cite_note-129"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-129">^</a></b> Laumann, Edward O. (1994) <a class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=72AHO0rE2HoC&printsec=frontcover#PPA80,M1" rel="nofollow"><i>The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States</i></a>, University of Chicago Press p 80, <a class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226470202">ISBN 0-226-47020-2</a></li>
<li id="cite_note-130"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-130">^</a></b> Y. A. Al-Sharrah (2003), "The Arab Tradition of Medical Education and its Relationship with the European Tradition", <i>Prospects</i> <b>33</b> (4), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>.</li>
<li id="cite_note-131"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-131">^</a></b> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Sarton" title="George Sarton">George Sarton</a>, <i>Introduction to the History of Science</i>.<br />
(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">cf.</a> Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997). <a class="external text" href="http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html" rel="nofollow">Quotations From Famous Historians of Science</a>, Cyberistan.)</li>
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<li id="cite_note-133"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-133">^</a></b> Pliny the Elder, Natural History, quoted at <span class="citation book">Naphtali Lewis, Meyer Reinhold (1990-12). <a class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=GO8tcTpgj-0C" rel="nofollow"><i>Roman Civilization</i></a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231071338" title="Special:BookSources/9780231071338">9780231071338</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://books.google.com/?id=GO8tcTpgj-0C" rel="nofollow">http://books.google.com/?id=GO8tcTpgj-0C</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Civilization&rft.aulast=Naphtali+Lewis%2C+Meyer+Reinhold&rft.au=Naphtali+Lewis%2C+Meyer+Reinhold&rft.date=1990-12&rft.isbn=9780231071338&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DGO8tcTpgj-0C&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-WhoNamedIt-Calmette-134"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-WhoNamedIt-Calmette_134-0">^</a></b> Who Named It? <a class="external text" href="http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2413.html" rel="nofollow">Léon Charles Albert Calmette.</a> Retrieved on 6 October 2006.</li>
<li id="cite_note-MedHist1970-Trail-135"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-MedHist1970-Trail_135-0">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Trail R (1970). <a class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1034037" rel="nofollow">"Richard Morton (1637–1698)"</a>. <i>Med Hist</i> <b>14</b> (2): 166–74. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/4914685" rel="nofollow">4914685</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Richard+Morton+%281637%E2%80%931698%29&rft.jtitle=Med+Hist&rft.aulast=Trail+R&rft.au=Trail+R&rft.date=1970&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=166%E2%80%9374&rft_id=info:pmid/4914685&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-136"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-136">^</a></b> Zur Pathogenie der Impetigines. Auszug aus einer brieflichen Mitteilung an den Herausgeber. [Müller’s] <i>Archiv für Anatomie, Physiologie und wissenschaftliche Medicin</i>. 1839, page 82.</li>
<li id="cite_note-137"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-137">^</a></b> <a class="external text" href="http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TRAVEL/DESTINATIONS/02/26/mammoth.cave.ap/index.html" rel="nofollow">Kentucky: Mammoth Cave long on history.</a> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a></i>. 27 February 2004. Accessed 8 October 2006. <a class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20060813140746/http://edition.cnn.com/2004/TRAVEL/DESTINATIONS/02/26/mammoth.cave.ap/index.html" rel="nofollow">Archived</a> August 13, 2006 at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li>
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<li id="cite_note-139"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-139">^</a></b> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Foundation" title="Nobel Foundation">Nobel Foundation</a>. <a class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1905/" rel="nofollow">The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905.</a>. Retrieved 7 October 2006.</li>
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<li id="cite_note-154"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-154">^</a></b> <span class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.cdc.gov/eid/content/16/8/1296.htm" rel="nofollow">"M. tuberculosis Complex Pathogen | CDC EID"</a>. Cdc.gov. 2010-07-29<span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://www.cdc.gov/eid/content/16/8/1296.htm" rel="nofollow">http://www.cdc.gov/eid/content/16/8/1296.htm</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2010-11-07</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=M.+tuberculosis+Complex+Pathogen+%26%23124%3B+CDC+EID&rft.atitle=&rft.date=2010-07-29&rft.pub=Cdc.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Feid%2Fcontent%2F16%2F8%2F1296.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-155"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-155">^</a></b> <span class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/press_releases/pr_20020916.htm" rel="nofollow">"WHO/Western Pacific Region-Poverty Issues Dominate RCM"</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/press_releases/pr_20020916.htm" rel="nofollow">http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/press_releases/pr_20020916.htm</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=WHO%2FWestern+Pacific+Region-Poverty+Issues+Dominate+RCM&rft.atitle=&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wpro.who.int%2Fmedia_centre%2Fpress_releases%2Fpr_20020916.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-156"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-156">^</a></b> <span class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=ajze0qn17uXM&refer=home" rel="nofollow">"Border Agents Failed to Stop Man With Tuberculosis (Update4) - Bloomberg.com"</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=ajze0qn17uXM&refer=home" rel="nofollow">http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=ajze0qn17uXM&refer=home</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Border+Agents+Failed+to+Stop+Man+With+Tuberculosis+%28Update4%29+-+Bloomberg.com&rft.atitle=&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bloomberg.com%2Fapps%2Fnews%3Fpid%3D20601087%26sid%3Dajze0qn17uXM%26refer%3Dhome&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-Tweddle_1994-157"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-Tweddle_1994_157-0">^</a></b> <span class="citation Journal">Tweddle N, Livingstone P (1994). "Bovine tuberculosis control and eradication programs in Australia and New Zealand". <i>Vet Microbiol</i> <b>40</b> (1–2): 23–39. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0378-1135%2894%2990044-2" rel="nofollow">10.1016/0378-1135(94)90044-2</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8073626" rel="nofollow">8073626</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bovine+tuberculosis+control+and+eradication+programs+in+Australia+and+New+Zealand&rft.jtitle=Vet+Microbiol&rft.aulast=Tweddle+N%2C+Livingstone+P&rft.au=Tweddle+N%2C+Livingstone+P&rft.date=1994&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=23%E2%80%9339&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016%2F0378-1135%2894%2990044-2&rft_id=info:pmid/8073626&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-158"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-158">^</a></b> The Department of Agriculture & Food (Ireland). <a class="external text" href="http://www.agriculture.ie/index.jsp?file=animal_health/TB.xml" rel="nofollow">Disease Eradication Schemes - Bovine Tuberculosis and Brucellosis.</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;" title=" since November 2010">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a></i>]</span></sup> Retrieved on 8 May 2006. <a class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20060629031749/http://www.agriculture.ie/index.jsp?file=animal_health/TB.xml" rel="nofollow">Archived</a> June 29, 2006 at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;" title=" since November 2010">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a></i>]</span></sup></li>
<li id="cite_note-159"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-159">^</a></b> Cassidy, Martin. <a class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4044897.stm" rel="nofollow">Badgers targeted over bovine TB.</a> <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i> 2 December 2004. Retrieved on 8 May 2006.</li>
<li id="cite_note-160"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-160">^</a></b> National Federation of Badger Groups (Ireland). <a class="external text" href="http://www.badger-killers.co.uk/Ireland/Ireland_news.html" rel="nofollow">Cattle blamed for massive increase in bovine TB.</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;" title=" since November 2010">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a></i>]</span></sup> Retrieved on 8 May 2006. <a class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20060823041645/http://www.badger-killers.co.uk/Ireland/Ireland_news.html" rel="nofollow">Archived</a> August 23, 2006 at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;" title=" since November 2010">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a></i>]</span></sup></li>
<li id="cite_note-161"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-161">^</a></b> <span class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200708/cmselect/cmenvfru/130/130i.pdf" rel="nofollow">"Badgers and cattle TB: the final report of the Independent Scientific Group on Cattle TB"</a> (PDF). House of Commons Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Committee<span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200708/cmselect/cmenvfru/130/130i.pdf" rel="nofollow">http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200708/cmselect/cmenvfru/130/130i.pdf</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 4 July 2008</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Badgers+and+cattle+TB%3A+the+final+report+of+the+Independent+Scientific+Group+on+Cattle+TB&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=House+of+Commons+Environment%2C+Food+and+Rural+Affairs+Committee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.publications.parliament.uk%2Fpa%2Fcm200708%2Fcmselect%2Fcmenvfru%2F130%2F130i.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-162"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#cite_ref-162">^</a></b> <span class="citation news"><a class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/7489413.stm" rel="nofollow">"Farmers' anger on cull rejection"</a>. BBC News. 4 July 2008<span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/7489413.stm" rel="nofollow">http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/7489413.stm</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 4 July 2008</span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Farmers%27+anger+on+cull+rejection&rft.atitle=&rft.date=4+July+2008&rft.pub=BBC+News&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fuk_news%2Fengland%2F7489413.stm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
</ol></div><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span></h2><div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2;"> <ul><li><span class="citation Journal">Blumberg HM, Leonard MK, Jasmer RM (2005). "Update on the treatment of tuberculosis and latent tuberculosis infection". <i>JAMA</i> <b>293</b> (22): 2776–84. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.293.22.2776" rel="nofollow">10.1001/jama.293.22.2776</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15941808" rel="nofollow">15941808</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Update+on+the+treatment+of+tuberculosis+and+latent+tuberculosis+infection&rft.jtitle=JAMA&rft.aulast=Blumberg+HM%2C+Leonard+MK%2C+Jasmer+RM&rft.au=Blumberg+HM%2C+Leonard+MK%2C+Jasmer+RM&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=293&rft.issue=22&rft.pages=2776%E2%80%9384&rft_id=info:doi/10.1001%2Fjama.293.22.2776&rft_id=info:pmid/15941808&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation book">Dormandy, Thomas (2000). <i>The White Death</i>. New York: New York University Press. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814719279" title="Special:BookSources/0814719279">0814719279</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+White+Death&rft.aulast=Dormandy&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Dormandy%2C%26%2332%3BThomas&rft.date=2000&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.isbn=0814719279&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation Journal">Joint Tuberculosis Committee of the British Thoracic Society (2000). <a class="external text" href="http://thorax.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/55/11/887" rel="nofollow">"Control and prevention of tuberculosis in the United Kingdom: code of practice 2000"</a>. <i>Thorax</i> <b>55</b> (11): 887–901. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fthorax.55.11.887" rel="nofollow">10.1136/thorax.55.11.887</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11050256" rel="nofollow">11050256</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Central" title="PubMed Central">PMC</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1745632" rel="nofollow">1745632</a><span class="printonly">. <a class="external free" href="http://thorax.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/55/11/887" rel="nofollow">http://thorax.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/55/11/887</a></span>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Control+and+prevention+of+tuberculosis+in+the+United+Kingdom%3A+code+of+practice+2000&rft.jtitle=Thorax&rft.aulast=Joint+Tuberculosis+Committee+of+the+British+Thoracic+Society&rft.au=Joint+Tuberculosis+Committee+of+the+British+Thoracic+Society&rft.date=2000&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=887%E2%80%93901&rft_id=info:doi/10.1136%2Fthorax.55.11.887&rft_id=info:pmid/11050256&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthorax.bmjjournals.com%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Fabstract%2F55%2F11%2F887&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation book">Kidder, Tracy (2004). <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountains_Beyond_Mountains" title="Mountains Beyond Mountains">Mountains Beyond Mountains</a></i>. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0812973011" title="Special:BookSources/0812973011">0812973011</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%5B%5BMountains+Beyond+Mountains%5D%5D&rft.aulast=Kidder&rft.aufirst=Tracy&rft.au=Kidder%2C%26%2332%3BTracy&rft.date=2004&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House+Trade+Paperbacks&rft.isbn=0812973011&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span> A nonfiction account of treating TB in Haiti, Peru, Russia, and elsewhere.</li>
<li><span class="citation book">Lawlor, Clark (2007). <i>Consumption and Literature</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0230020038" title="Special:BookSources/0230020038">0230020038</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consumption+and+Literature&rft.aulast=Lawlor&rft.aufirst=Clark&rft.au=Lawlor%2C%26%2332%3BClark&rft.date=2007&rft.place=Basingstoke&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.isbn=0230020038&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation Journal">Nemery B, Yew WW, Albert R, <i>et al.</i> (2005). "Tuberculosis, nontuberculous lung infection, pleural disorders, pulmonary function, respiratory muscles, occupational lung disease, pulmonary infections, and social issues in AJRCCM in 2004". <i>Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.</i> <b>171</b> (6): 554–62. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1164%2Frccm.2412009" rel="nofollow">10.1164/rccm.2412009</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15753485" rel="nofollow">15753485</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Tuberculosis%2C+nontuberculous+lung+infection%2C+pleural+disorders%2C+pulmonary+function%2C+respiratory+muscles%2C+occupational+lung+disease%2C+pulmonary+infections%2C+and+social+issues+in+AJRCCM+in+2004&rft.jtitle=Am.+J.+Respir.+Crit.+Care+Med.&rft.aulast=Nemery+B%2C+Yew+WW%2C+Albert+R%2C+%27%27et+al.%27%27&rft.au=Nemery+B%2C+Yew+WW%2C+Albert+R%2C+%27%27et+al.%27%27&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=171&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=554%E2%80%9362&rft_id=info:doi/10.1164%2Frccm.2412009&rft_id=info:pmid/15753485&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation Journal">Overlock, Melvin G. (January 1912). "<a class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=Vv--PfedzLAC&pg=PA294" rel="nofollow">Driving Tuberculosis Out Of Industry: The Overlock Agreement That Protects 2,000,000 Workers</a>". <i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_Work" title="World's Work">The World's Work: A History of Our Time</a></i> <b>XXIII</b>: 268–187.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%5Bhttp%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVv--PfedzLAC%26pg%3DPA294+Driving+Tuberculosis+Out+Of+Industry%3A+The+Overlock+Agreement+That+Protects+2%2C000%2C000+Workers%5D&rft.jtitle=%5B%5BWorld%27s+Work%7CThe+World%27s+Work%3A+A+History+of+Our+Time%5D%5D&rft.aulast=Overlock&rft.aufirst=Melvin+G.&rft.au=Overlock%2C%26%2332%3BMelvin+G.&rft.date=January+1912&rft.volume=XXIII&rft.pages=268%E2%80%93187&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
<li><span class="citation book">Ryan, Frank (1993). <i>The Forgotten Plague: How the Battle Against Tuberculosis Was Won — and Lost</i>. Boston, MA: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little,_Brown_and_Company" title="Little, Brown and Company">Little, Brown and Company</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-316-76380-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-316-76380-2">0-316-76380-2</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Plague%3A+How+the+Battle+Against+Tuberculosis+Was+Won+%E2%80%94+and+Lost&rft.aulast=Ryan&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft.au=Ryan%2C%26%2332%3BFrank&rft.date=1993&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=%5B%5BLittle%2C+Brown+and+Company%5D%5D&rft.isbn=0-316-76380-2&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span>. First published in the United Kingdom as <i>Tuberculosis: The Greatest Story Never Told</i>.</li>
<li><span class="citation Journal">Walton D, Farmer P (2000). "MSJAMA: the new white plague". <i>JAMA</i> <b>284</b> (21): 2789. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.284.21.2789" rel="nofollow">10.1001/jama.284.21.2789</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> <a class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11105192" rel="nofollow">11105192</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=MSJAMA%3A+the+new+white+plague&rft.jtitle=JAMA&rft.aulast=Walton+D%2C+Farmer+P&rft.au=Walton+D%2C+Farmer+P&rft.date=2000&rft.volume=284&rft.issue=21&rft.pages=2789&rft_id=info:doi/10.1001%2Fjama.284.21.2789&rft_id=info:pmid/11105192&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Tuberculosis"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></li>
</ul></div><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberculosis&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2><table class="metadata mbox-small plainlinks" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170);"><tbody>
<tr> <td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" height="40" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" /></td> <td class="mbox-text">Wikimedia Commons has media related to: <i><b><a class="extiw" href="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tuberculosis" title="commons:Category:Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></b></i></td> </tr>
</tbody></table><ul><li>General information, public health websites and epidemiology <ul><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.future-science.com/toc/fmc/2/8" rel="nofollow">Special Issue of Future Medicinal Chemistry on TB drug development</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) - <a class="external text" href="http://www.who.int/tb/en/" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.dmoz.org/Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Infectious_Diseases/Mycobacterial/Tuberculosis//" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis</a> at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Directory_Project" title="Open Directory Project">Open Directory Project</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.stoptb.org/" rel="nofollow">The Stop TB Partnership</a> - established in 2000 with the goal of eliminating tuberculosis as a public health problem</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.kncvtbc.nl/Site/Professional.aspx?language=en-GB" rel="nofollow">KNCV Tuberculosis Foundation</a> - committed to reducing tuberculosis in the Netherlands and worldwide, in around forty countries. It does so by means of policy development, technical assistance, advisory services, training programs, capacity building, as well as epidemiological and operational research.</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/Health_topics/tuberculosis" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis in Europe</a> factsheet from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a>, agency of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia_Health_Review" title="Central Asia Health Review">Central Asia Health Review</a> (CAHR). <a class="external text" href="http://www.cahr.info/index_files/page0021.htm" rel="nofollow">High Prevalence of Multi-Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Uzbekistan</a></li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.cdc.gov/tb/default.htm" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis</a> on the CDC website</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.hpa.org.uk/infections/topics_az/tb/menu.htm" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis information</a> from the Health Protection Agency in the UK</li>
<li>Kaiser Family Foundation. <a class="external text" href="http://www.globalhealthfacts.org/topic.jsp?i=9" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis.</a> Globalhealthfacts.org.</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development" title="United States Agency for International Development">United States Agency for International Development</a> (USAID). <a class="external text" href="http://www.tbcta.org/" rel="nofollow">The Tuberculosis Coalition for Technical Assistance (TBCTA).</a></li>
<li>Tuberculosis and HIV: HIV InSite Knowledge Base <a class="external text" href="http://hivinsite.org/InSite?page=kb-00&doc=kb-05-01-06" rel="nofollow">chapter</a> and <a class="external text" href="http://hivinsite.org/InSite?page=kbr-05-01-06" rel="nofollow">related resources</a>.</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><ul><li>Patient information on tuberculosis <ul><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.medicinenet.com/tuberculosis/article.htm" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis</a> on Medicinenet.com (HON code compliant)</li>
<li>(CDC) - <a class="external text" href="http://www.cdc.gov/tb/?404;http://www.cdc.gov:80/tb/faqs/default.htm" rel="nofollow">TB Questions and Answers</a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> Website <a class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/tuberculosis/tbc/index.html" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis Educational Game</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><ul><li>Professional information and scientific research <ul><li><a class="external text" href="http://www.tbdb.org/" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis Database</a> is an integrated platform for tuberculosis research, hosting genomic and gene expression data for <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i> and other related species.</li>
<li><i><a class="external text" href="http://www.biohealthbase.org/GSearch/statsAutomation.do?decorator=Mycobacterium" rel="nofollow">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a></i> in the BioHealthBase (TB genomics and proteomics database)</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.tuberculosistextbook.com/" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis 2007</a> - a textbook that focuses on research, diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis</li>
<li><a class="external text" href="http://www.ibioseminars.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=265&Itemid=261" rel="nofollow">Tuberculosis: A Persistent Threat to Global Health</a> on-line lecture by John McKinney</li>
</ul></li>
</ul>Molecular Biologyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00814461328423557334noreply@blogger.com0